UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


LETTERS 


HON.  WILLIAM  PRESCOTT,  Z.L.JD. 


FREE  SCHOOLS  OF  NEW  ENGLAND, 


REMARKS  UPON  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


.1AMKS  (,.  CARTER. 


m  hare  a  man  reason  well,  you  must  usr  h 


BOS 

IFLLIARD  6f  CO 


LKD  MF.TCAI.I    PR!" 


41&5 


. 


* 


LETTERS 


BON.  WILLIAM  PRESCOTT,  LL.  D. 


ON  THE 


FREE  SCHOOLS  OF  NEW  ENGLAND, 


REMARKS  UPON  THE  PRINCIPLES  OP  INSTRUCTION. 


BY  JAMES  G.  CARTER. 


Would  you  have  a  man  reason  well,  you  must  use  him  to  it  betimes, 

LOCKE. 


BOSTON : 

PUBLISHED  BY  CUMMINGS,  HILLIARD  Sf  CO. 

BILLIARD  AHD  METCAI.F  PRINTERS. 
1824. 


DISTRICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  t»  wit : 

Dittrict  Clerlft  Office. 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  that  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  August,  A.  D.  1824,  and  in  the  forty- 
ninth  year  ol  the  Independence  of  the  United  State*  of  Amrnea,  Cuiumiiigi,  ililliard,  &  Co. 
•  •I  the  MM!  district,  hare  deposited  in  thw  office  the  title  ol  a  book,  the  right  whereof  they 
claim  a*  proprietor*,  in  the  words  tallowing,  to  wit : 

Letten  to  the  Hon.  William  Pretcott,  LL.  D.  on  the  Free  Schools  of  New  England,  with 
Remarks  upon  the  Principle*  of  Instruction.  By  Jame*  G.  Carter. 

Would  you  hare  a  man  reason  well,  >ou  must  use  him  to  it  bvtimea. 

L«ke. 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Cong-rets  of  the  United  States,  entitled  u  An  act  for  the 
encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  chart*,  and  books,  to  the  authors 
and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  timt-s  therein  mentioned  ;"  and  also  to  an  act,  en- 
titled "  An  act  supplementary  to  an  act,  entitled  *  An  act  tor  the  encouragement  ol  learning, 
by  securing  the  copies  of  map*,  churls,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  turn 
copies,  during  the  limes  therein  m«  ntioncd  ;'  and  (Mending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts 
ol'  designing,  engraving,  aud  ctchin{:  historical  and  other  prints," 

JOHN  W.  DAVIS, 
Clerk  of  the  Uutrict  if  MaitacHutetti. 


STACK  ANKEI 

LA 


TO   THE 


BON.  WILLIAM  PRESCOTT,  LL.  D. 

SIR, 

THE  deep  interest  you  have  ever  evinced  in  whatever 
affects  the  political  and  moral  condition  of  our  country,  has 
induced  me  to  believe,  you  would  not  look  with  indifference 
upon  any  effort,  however  humble,  to  improve  an  institution  of 
such  vital  importance  to  our  happiness,  dignity,  and  prosper- 
ity, as  the  system  of  free  schools.     The  important  relation 
you  sustain  to  the  first  literary  institution  in   our  country, 
seems,  moreover,  to  warrant  in  some  degree  my  presumption, 
;  j  in  inviting  your  attention  to  the  consideration  of  a  few  gen- 
*|  eral  principles  of  instruction.     It  is  upon  these,  that  much  of 
the  success  of  all  schools  and  seminaries  of  learning,  howev- 
\C  er  they  may  be  conducted  in  other  respects,  must  ultimately 
X^  depend.     The  principles,  I  have  endeavoured  to  illustrate, 
,   seem  to   me  never   to  have  been  carried  into  effect  in  our 
^  country.      Though   my   illustrations    are    all    drawn     from 
so  humble  a  department  as  that  of  elementary  instruction,  the 
-  application  will  be  easily  made  to  the  more  advanced  pur- 
"*  suits  of  literature  and  science. 

Some  of  the  leading  thoughts  in  the  following  Letters  were 
prepared  for  the  press  a  few  months  since  in  the  form  of  a 
1/3    Review  ;  and  it  was  not  till  within  a  few  weeks,  that  I  yielded 
to  the  ad.iCe  of  friends,  on  whose  judgment  I  am  accustomed 


4C9462 


iV 

to  rely,  and  determined  to  submit  them  to  the  publick  in 
their  present  form.  I  have  not  assumed  the  principles  hastily  ; 
but  the  circumstances  above  named,  together  with  my  daily 
avocations,  and  the  impossibility  of  examining  the  whole  in  a 
connected  form,  before  it  was  sent  to  the  press,  may  fairly 
claim  some  indulgence  in  the  execution.  In  selecting  your 
name  as  a  medium,  through  which  to  make  my  Communica- 
tions to  the  publick,  I  was  guided  not  merely  by  the  reasons, 
to  which  I  have  already  alluded.  These,  although  sufficient 
to  determine  my  choice,  only  came  to  corroborate  a  decision, 
which  my  personal  feelings  had  already  suggested.  With 
all  their  imperfections,  and  no  doubt  many  will  be  detected, 
the  following  Letters  are  submitted  to  your  perusal,  and  if 
found  worthy,  to  your  protection  and  encouragement.  The 
highest  ambition,  I  have  dared  to  form  in  regard  to  them,  will 
be  answered,  if  they  meet  your  approbation,  and  are  the 
means  of  turning  the  public  attention  more  to  the  important 
subject,  to  which  they  relate.  I  cannot,  however,  but  in- 
dulge a  secret  hope,  that  they  may  be  a  remote  cause  of  in- 
teresting minds  more  commensurate  than  my  own,  with  the 
magnitude  of  the  object. 

Most  respectfully,  I  remain, 

Sir,  your  obliged  and 

Obedient  servant, 

J.  G.  CARTER. 
Lancaster,  13  August,  1824. 


LETTERS. 


LETTER  I. 

SIR, 

THE  system  of  free  schools  in  New  England, 
has  long  been  the  subject  of  almost  unqualified 
praise  ;  and  those,  who  have  had  largest  experience 
of  its  excellence,  have  felt  themselves  privileged  to 
be  most  eloquent,  in  setting  it  forth  to  the  world. 
The  great  degree  of  complacency,  with  which  we 
dwell  upon  this  favorite  institution,  has  drawn  upon 
us  some  illnatured  remarks  from  our  less  fortunate 
brethren  in  other  sections  of  our  country.  They 
would,  no  doubt,  be  glad  to  beg  a  truce  from  the 
subject,  even  at  the  expense  of  believing  all  that  has 
been  said.  And  if  no  object  were  proposed,  but  a 
vain  ostentation  of  some  little  advantage,  which  we 
may  happen  to  possess  in  this  respect,  I  should  spare 
myself  the  useless  task  of  saying  more  upon  the 
subject.  No  trait  in  the  character  of  our  legisla- 
tion, deserves  more  admiration,  than  the  liberal  and 
high-minded  policy  adopted  by  the  Federal  and  State 


governments,  in  regard  to  provisions  for  early  educa- 
tion. New  £ngland  may  well  offer  her  most  hearty 
congratulations,  that  the  system  of  free  schools, 
originating  with  her,  has  been  introduced  into  most 
of  the  States  of  the  Union  ;  and  in  some  has  been 
carried  to  a  good  degree  of  perfection.  I  am,  cer- 
tainly, not  disposed  to  detract  any  thing  from  so 
good  an  establishment.  It  is,  indeed,  the  richest 
inheritance,  we  enjoy  from  our  ancestors  ;  and  the 
value,  we  attach  to  it,  is  enhanced  no  small  degree, 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  sacrifices,  it  cost  its  pious 
founders.  The  first  and  imperious  wants  of  a  peo- 
ple in  a  "  strange  land,"  were  but  indifferently  sup- 
plied, when  provision  was  made  by  authority,  for 
the  universal  instruction  of  the  young.  We  must 
not  analyze,  too  closely,  all  the  motives,  which  in- 
duced such  provision.  We  might,  perhaps,  find,  that 
a  zeal  for  the  faith,  which  they  believed  to  have 
been  once  delivered  to  the  saints,  made  no  small 
share ;  for  it  must  be  confessed,  that  little  was 
taught  in  the  schools  of  the  puritans,  but  catechisms 
containing  their  faith.  At  least,  this  was  the  grand 
object,  and  every  thing  else  was  subsidiary.  The 
youth,  who  had  been  taught  subjection  to  his  supe- 
riors, by  arguments  summarily  addressed  to  his  back, 
and  was  well  versed  in  the  creed  of  the  then  ortho- 
dox church,  was  sent  into  the  world,  with  perfect 
confidence  in  his  competency  to  surmount  all  diffi- 
culties, which  might  occur  in  the  various  relations  of 
life.  But  this  was  not  long  the  state  of  things.  The 


religious  zeal  of  the  puritans,  which,  to  say  the  least, 
approached  to  bigotry  and  intolerance,  was  much 
qualified  in  its  influence  upon  the  early  institutions 
of  the  country,  by  their  love  of  civil  liberty.  Their 
political  creed  was  hardly  less  heretical  than  their 
religious ;  and  they  were  as  impatient  of  control 
in  the  capacity  of  a  body  politick,  as  their  conscien- 
ces were  wayward  and  obstinate  in  matters  of  reli- 
gion. Their  attachment  to  free  institutions  was  de- 
voted and  enthusiastick  ;  and  they  had  the  wisdom 
to  discover,  that  "  knowledge  is  essential  to  free- 
dom." These  two  causes,  zeal  for  their  faith,  and 
love  of  free  institutions,  conspiring,  led  to  the  adoption 
of  a  policy  for  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge, 
which  showed  practically  and  efficiently,  how  much 
they  loved  their  institutions,  and  how  well  they  un- 
derstood, what  constitutes  the  basis  of  free  govern- 
ments. 

New  England  was  first  granted  by  letters  patent 
from  King  James,  in  1621,  to  "  diverse  of  his  lov- 
ing subjects,"  to  wit ;  the  Council  established  at 
Plymouth,  and  embraced  that  moderate  portion  of 
the  American  continent,  "  lying  and  being  in  breadth 
from  Fourty  degrees  of  Northerly  Latitude  from  the 
Equinoctiall  line,  to  Fourty  eight  Degrees  of  the  said 
Northerly  Latitude,  and  in  Length  by  all  the  Breadth 
aforesaid,  throughout  the  main  Land  from  sea  to 
sea."*  One  would  think,  by  the  liberality  of  this 
grant,  that  his  Majesty  did  not  very  well  understand 

*  Haz.  Hist.  Coll.  vol.  i.  p.  105. 


the  geography  of  this  continent,  or  that  he  did  not 
set  a  very  high  value  on  his  extensive  acquisitions 
here.  The  Council  of  Plymouth,  soon  after,  made 
large  grants  of  territory  to  different  companies  for 
the  purpose  of  settlement  in  New  England.  To 
Sir  Henry  Roswell  and  others,  they  gave  the  part 
called  Massachusetts  Bay  ;*  and  this  grant  was  con- 
firmed in  1628,  by  the  Colony  charter  from  King 
Charles.  The  Colonies  of  Plymouth,!  Connecticut, J 

*  The  original  grant  of  Massachusetts  Bay  embraced,  "  all 
that  Parte  of  Newe  England  in  America,  which  lyes  and  extends 
betweene  a  greate  River  there,  commonlie  called  Monomack, 
alias  Merriemack,  and  a  certain  other  River  there,  called  Charles 
River,  being  in  the  bottome  of  a  certayne  Bay  there  commonlie 
called  Massachusetts,  alias  Mattachusetts,  alias  Massatusetts  Bay, 
and  also  all  and  singular  those  Lands  and  Hereditaments  what- 
soever, lying  within  the  space  of  three  English  myles  on  the 
South  parte  of  the  said  Charles  River,  or  of  any  or  everie  Parte 
thereof;  and  also,  all  and  singular  the  Landes  and  Heredita- 
ments whatsoever  lying  and  being  within  the  space  of  three  Eng- 
lish myles  to  the  southwarde  of  the  southermost  Parte  of  the 
said  Bay,  called  Massachusetts,  alias  Mattachusetts,  alias  Massa- 
tusetts Bay ;  and  also  all  those  Landes  and  Hereditaments  what- 
soever, which  lye,  and  be  within  the  space  of  three  En<:lMi 
myles  to  the  Northwarde  of  the  said  River  called  Monomack, 
alias  Merriemack,  or  to  the  Northwarde  of  any  and  every  Parte 
thereof,  and  all  Landes  and  Hereditaments  whatsoever,  lying 
within  the  lymitts  aforcsaide,  North  and  South  in  Latitude  and 
breadth,  and  in  Length  and  Longitude,  of  and  within  all  the 
Breadth  aforesaide  throughout  the  Mayne  Landes  there,  from 
the  Atlantick  and  Western  Sea  and  Ocean  on  the  Easte  Parte, 
to  the  South  Sea  on  the  West  Parte,"  &c.— [Haz.  Hist.  Coll. 
vol.  i.  p.  241.J 

tl629.  $1631. 


and  New  Haven  were  likewise  organized  by  char- 
ters, and  these  four,  for  some  time,  constituted  the 
New  England  confederation.  Under  the  Colony 
charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  among  the  first  legis- 
lative acts,  are  recorded  the  following  characteristic 
preamble  and  law  : 

"  For  as  much  as  the  good  education  of  children 
is  of  singular  behoof  and  benefit  to  any  common- 
wealth, and  whereas  many  parents  and  masters  are 
too  indulgent  and  negligent  in  that  kind  ; 

"  It  is  ordered,  that  the  selectmen  of  every  town 
in  the  several  precincts  and  quarters  where  they 
dwell,  shall  have  a  vigilant  eye  over  their  brethren 
and  neighbours,  to  see  ; 

"  First,  that  none  of  them  shall  suffer  so  much 
barbarism  in  any  of  their  families,  as  not  to  endeav- 
our to  teach,  by  themselves  or  others,  their  children 
and  apprentices,  so  much  learning,  as  may  enable 
them  perfectly  to  read  the  English  tongue,  and 
knowledge  of  the  capital  laAvs  : 

"  Also,  that  all  masters  of  families  do  once  a 
week  (at  the  least)  catechise  their  children  and  ser- 
vants in  the  grounds  of  religion  ;  and  if  any  be  una- 
ble to  do  so  much,  that  then,  at  the  least,  they  pro- 
cure such  children  and  apprentices  to  learn  some 
short  orthodox  catechism  without  book,  that  they 
may  be  able  to  answer  unto  the  questions,  that  shall 
be  propounded  to  them  out  of  such  catechism,  by 
their  parents  or  masters,  or  any  of  the  selectmen, 


6 

when  they  shall  call  them  to  a  trial  of  what  they 
have  learned  in  that  kind."* 

Although  laws  like  these  would  not,  in  themselves, 
lead  us  to  form  any  very  sanguine  expectations  of 
great  progress  in  literature,  or  "very  astonishing  dis- 
coveries in  science ;  yet,  from  the  deep  solicitude 
they  manifest  upon  the  subject,  we  are  led  to  anti- 
cipate something  better,  as  soon  as  tlie  resources  of 
the  Colony  are  adequate  to  a  more  liberal  provision. 
This  anticipation  is  realized  by  the  foundation  of 
Harvard  College  in  1636.  After  the  confederation 
of  the  Colonies,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  Con- 
necticut, and  New  Haven,  in  1643,  this  "  school  of 
the  prophets,"  as  it  was  then  called,  became  an  ob- 
ject of  deep  interest,  and  received  their  united  and 
undiverted  patronage. 

How  general  was  the  interest  taken  in  this  insti- 
tution, and  how  great  exertions  they  were  willing  to 
make,  for  its  encouragement,  will  appear  from  the 
following  petition  of  the  "  President  and  Fellows," 
and  the  reply  they  received  from  the  Commissioners. 

"  Seeing  from  the  first  evil  contrivall   of  the  col- 

o 

lidge  building,  there  now  ensues  yearely  decayes  of 
the  rooff,  walls,  and  foundations,  which  the  study ' 
rents  will  not  carry  forth  to  repaire  ;  therefore,  we 
present  to  your  wisdome  to  propounde  some  way  to 
carry  an  end  to  this  worke."  A  reply  was  returned; 
"  The  Commissioners  will  propounde  to,  and  im- 
prove their  several  interests  in  the  Collonies,  that  by 
pecks,  half  bushells,  and  bushells  of  wheat,  accord- 
*  Colony  Laws,  Chap.  22,  Sec.  1. 


ing  as  men  are  free  and  able,  the  Collidge  may  have 
some  considerable  yearly  healp  towards  their  occa- 
sions, and  herein,  if  the  Massachusetts  please  to 
give  a  leading  example,  the  rest  may  probably  the 
more  reddyly  follow.'" 

Notwithstanding  the  solicitude  of  the  puriMns,  that 
the  rising  generation  should  be  educated  se>und  in  thfe 
faith,  as  well  as  correct  irt  practice,  h*  seems,  the 
perversity  of  human  nature  did  sometimes,  even  in 
those  good  days,  prevail ;  and  it  was  difficult  to  find 
proper  objects  of  the  publick  favour. .'•  The  govern- 
ment of  the  College  ask  direction  of  the  general 
Court,  as  to  the  distribution  of. their  bounty  in  the 
following  words. 

"  Whither  we  shall  have  respect,  in  the  disposall 
of  the  said  contributions,  to  all  the  schollars  in  gen- 
erall,  (as  by  maintenance  of  common  officers  and  the 
like,)  or  especially,  to  such  as  are  poore,  pious,  and 
learned  ;  the  three  usual  qualifications  looked  at  in 
such  cases,  "f  The  Court  reply;  "The  supplies 
granted  by  the  severall  Collonies  were  first  intended 
for  the  support  and  encouragement  of  poore,  pious, 
and  learned  youthes,  and  it  is  desired  these  ends  may 
cheefly  be  attended  in  the  disposall  thereof;  onely 
if  no  such  youthes  be  present,  k  may  be  imployed 
for  the  common  advantage  of  the  Collidge.  "J 

These  evidences  of  early  attention  to  Harvard  Col- 
lege are  cited,  not  because  it  is  that,  in  which  I  am 

*  Haz.  Hist.  Coll  vol.  ii.  p.  107. 

t  Hist.  Coll.  vol.  ii.  p.  85. 

\  Hist.  Coll.  vol.  ii.  pp.  86,  87. 


iiow  chiefly  interested,  but  to  show  the  interest,  our 
ancestors  felt  on  the  subject  of  education,  and  thrc 
sacrifices  they  were  willing  to  make  for  the  general 
diffusion  of  knowledge.  Although  the  College  was 
a  favorite  object  of  patronage,  the  puritans  did  not 
forget  the  "primary  schools."*  They  bestowed 
upon  them  an  attention,  which  evinced  how  vrll 
they  judged,  that  it  is  in  them,  the  character  of  the 
mass  of  the  people  is  formed.  So  far  as  education 
is  concerned,  the  highest  seminaries  may  furnish  the 
ornament,  but  the  primary  schools  must  afford  the 
strength  and  stability  of  republican  institutions.  As 
early  as  1647,  less  than  twenty  years  from  the  date 
of  their  first  charter,  the  colony  of  Massachusetts 
Bay  made  provision  by  law,  for  the  support  of  schools 
at  the  public  expense,  for  instruction  in  reading  and 
writing,  in  every  town  containing  fifty  families  ;  and 
for  the  support  of  a  grammar  school,  the  instructor 
of  which  should  be  competent  to  prepare  young  men 
for  the  University,  in  every  town  containing  one 
hundred  families.  For  this  exertion,  which,  consid- 
ering the  state  of  the  Colonies  at  this  period  of  their 
history,  must  have  been  no  inconsiderable  one,  they 
assign  the  following  truly  catholick  and  pious  rea- 
son : 

"It  being  one  chief  project  of  Satan  to  keep  men 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  scripture,  as  in  former 
times  keeping  them  in  unknown  tongues,  so  in  these 

*  This  phrase  is  used  to  denote  the  elementary  or  lowest  class 
of  schools,  which  are  supported  by  the  districts  of  each  town,. 


latter  times,  by  persuading  from  the  use  of  tongues, 
that  so  at  least  the  true  sense  and  meaning  of  the 
original  might  be  clouded  and  corrupted  with  false 
glosses  of  deceivers ;  to  the  end  that  learning  may 
not  be  buried  in  the  graves  of  our  forefathers  in 
church  and  commonwealth,  the  Lord  assisting  our 
endeavours  : — 

"  Sec.  I.  It  is  therefore  ordered  by  this  Court  and 
the  authority  thereof;  that  every  township  within 
this  jurisdiction,  after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them 
to  the  number  of  fifty  householders,  shall  then  forth- 
with appoint  one  within  their  towns  to  teach  all  such 
children,  as  shall  resort  to  him,  to  write  and  read, 
whose  wages  shall  be  paid,  either  by  the  parents  or 
masters  of  such  children,  or  by  the  inhabitants  in 
general,  by  way  of  supply,  as  the  major  part  of 
those,  that  order  the  prudentials  of  the  town,  shall 
appoint :  provided  that  those  who  send  their  children 
be  not  oppressed  by  paying  much  more  than  they 
can  have  them  taught  for  in  other  towns. 

"  SEC.  II.  And  it  is  further  ordered,  that  where  any 
town  shall  increase  to  the  number  of  one  hundred 
families  or  householders,  they  shall  set  up  a  grammar 
school,  the  master  thereof  being  able  to  instruct 
youth,  so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted  for  the  University  ; 
and  if  any  town  neglect  the  performance  hereof  above 
one  year,  then  every  such  town  shall  pay  five  pounds 
per  annum  to  the  next  such  school,  till  they  shall  per- 
form this  order."*  To  insure  the  object  of  the  law, 

*  Colony  Laws,  Chap.  78. 


10 

the  penalty  was  afterwards  increased  to  ten,  and  final- 
ly, to  twenty  pounds.  And  lest  the  moral  characters 
of  the  young  should  suffer,  by  their  being  educated 
by  improper  instructers,  this  cautious  and  saving  ad- 
monition is  subjoined  ;  "  this  court  doth  commend  it 
to  the  serious  consideration  and  special  care  of  our 
overseers  of  the  college,  and  the  selectmen  in  the 
several  towns,  not  to  admit  or  suffer  any  such  to  be 
continued  in  the  office  or  place  of  teaching,  educating, 
or  instructing  youth  or  children  in  the  college  or 
schools,  that  have  manifested  themselves  unsound  in 
the  faith,  or  scandalous  in  their  lives,  and  have  not 
given  satisfaction  according  to  the  rules  of  Christ." 

As  the  population  increased  in  some  towns,  so  as 
to  render  the  former  provisions  inadequate  to  their 
purpose,  another  law  provided,  that  "  every  town 
consisting  of  more  than  five  hundred  families  or 
householders,  shall  set  up  and  maintain  two  grammar 
schools,  and  two  writing  schools,  the  masters  whereof 
shall  be  fit  and  able  to  instruct  youth,  as  the  law  di- 
rects." These  were  the  laws  for  the  support  of  free 
schools,  which  obtained  under  the  Colony  Charter  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  and  as  they  were  executed,  they 
secured  to  all,  the  means  of  some  education. 

The  colony  of  Plymouth,  though  not  approaching 
that  of  Massachuetts  in  population  and  resources,  was 
hardly  inferior  in  the  enlightened  views  entertained 
upon  the  subject  of  free  schools.  In  1667,  their 
legislature  hold  the  following  language ;  "  For  as 
much  as  the  maintenance  of  good  literature  doth 


11 

much  tend  to  the  advancement  of  the  weal  and  flour- 
ishing state  of  societies  and  republicks,  this  court 
doth  therefore  order,  that  in  whatever  township  in 
this  government,  consisting  of  fifty  families  or  up- 
wards, any  meet  man  shall  be  obtained  to  teach  a 
grammar  school,  such  township  shall  allow  at  least 
twelve  pounds,  to  be  raised  by  rate  on  all  the  inhabi- 
tants." As  the  colony  of  Connecticut  was  princi- 
pally settled  by  emigration  from  the  older  colony  of 
Massachusetts,  it  early  adopted  the  spirit  of  its  laws, 
upon  all  subjects.  The  causes,  which  influenced  so 
strongly  all  the  early  institutions  of  New  England, 
operated  as  powerfully  in  Connecticut,  as  in  any  of  the 
colonies.  They  loved  free  institutions,  and  were 
impatient  of  control  from  any  source  foreign  to 
themselves.  And  their  zeal  to  propagate  and  perpet- 
uate a  blind  and  bigoted  faith  was  proverbial.  But 
they  did  all  for  conscience's  sake.  Whatever  were 
the  causes,  which  led  the  puritans  of  New  England 
to  the  adoption  of  their  liberal  and  enlightened  policy 
in  regard  to  free  shools,  the  effects  were,  certainly, 
most  happy  upon  the  condition  of  the  people.  And 
with  the  advantages  of  their  experience,  and  of  living 
in  a  more  enlightened  age,  though  we  might  wish  to 
change  some  shades  in  their  motives,  we  could  hard- 
ly hope,  on  the  whole,  to  make  more  noble  exertions 
for  the  promotion  of  the  same  object.  Their  pious 
care  of  the  morals  of  the  young  ;  their  deep  and  de- 
voted interest  in  the  general  dissemination  of  knowl- 
edge ;  and  the  sacrifices  they  endured  to  afford 


12 


encouragement  and  patronage  to  those  nurseries  of 
piety  and  knowledge,  the  free  schools,  are  without 
parallel  in  the  history  of  this,  or  any  other  country. 


LETTER  II. 


THE  province  charter  from  William  and  Mary,  in 
1691,  ordained,  "  that  the  territories  and  colonies 
commonly  called  or  known  by  the  names  of  the  Col- 
ony of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  the  Colony  of  New 
Plymouth,  the  province  of  Main,  the  territory  called 
Accada,  or  Nova  Scotia  ;  and  all  that  tract  of  land 
lying  between  the  said  territories  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  the  said  province  of  Main,  be  erected,  united, 
and  incorporated,  into  one  real  province,  by  the  name 
of  our  Province  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  New  Eng- 
land." In  this  charter,*  all  grants  before  made  to 

*  "  Provided,  nevertheless,  and  we  do  for  us,  our  heirs  and  suc- 
cessors, grant  and  ordain,  that  all  and  every  such  lands,  tene- 
ments and  hereditaments,  and  all  other  estates,  which  any  person 
or  persons,  or  bodies  politick  or  corporate,  towns,  villages,  colleges, 
or  schools,  do  hold  and  enjoy,  or  ought  to  hold  and  enjoy,  within 
the  bounds  aforesaid,  by  or  under  any  grant  or  estate  duly  made 
or  granted  by  any  general  court  formerly  held,  or  by  virtue  of 


any  town,  college,  or  school  of  learning,  were  con- 
firmed. The  laws  which  had  been  passed,  under  the 
colony  charter  of  Massachusetts,  for  the  regulation 
and  support  of  free  schools,  were  essentially  confirm- 
ed, the  first  year  after  the  province  charter  was  re- 
ceived, by  the  following  act  of  the  "  governer,  council, 
and  representatives,  convened  in  general  court  or 
assembly." 

"  And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  afore- 
said, that  every  town  within  this  province,  having 
the  number  of  fifty  householders  or  upwards,  shall  be 
constantly  provided  of  a  schoolmaster  to  teach  child- 
ren and  youth  to  read  and  write  ;  and  where  any 
town  or  towns  have  the  number  of  one  hundred  fami- 
lies or  householders,  there  shall  also  be  a  grammar 
school  set  up  in  every  such  town,  and  some  discreet 
person  of  good  conversation,  well  instructed  in  the 
tongues,  procured  to  keep  such  school,  every  such 
schoolmaster  to  be  suitably  encouraged  and  paid  by 
the  inhabitants.  And  the  selectmen  and  inhabitants 
of  such  towns  respectively,  shall  take  effectual  care 
and  make  due  provision  for  the  settlement  and  main- 
tenance of  such  schoolmaster  and  masters."* 

the  letters  patent  herein  before  recited,  or  by  any  other  lawful 
right  or  title  whatsoever,  shall  be  by  such  person  and  persons, 
bodies  politick  and  corporate,  towns,  villages,  colleges,* or  schools, 
their  respective  heirs,  successors,  and  assigns  forever,  hereafter 
held  and  enjoyed,  according  to  the  purport  and  intent  of  such 
respective  grant,  under  and  subject  nevertheless,  to  the  rents  and 
services  thereby  reserved  or  made  payable,  any  matter  or  thing 
whatsoever  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding."  [Province  Charter.] 
*  Prov.  Laws,  Chap.  13,  sec.  4. 


14 

These,  together  with  the  subsequent  provisions, 
that  grammar  schoolmasters  should  be  approved  by 
the  selectmen  of  the  town,  and  the  minister  of  tin 
same,  or  of  a  neighbouring  town,  constituted  all  the 
legislative  interference,  which  was  deemed  necessary 
to  carry  into  effect  the  whole  system.  Indeed,  laws 
were  hardly  necessary  for  such  a  purpose,  in  a  com- 
munity so  deeply  impressed  with  the  importance  of 
the  subject.  The  colonies  of  Connecticut  and  New 
Haven,  zealously  emulated  the  older  colonies  of 
Massachusetts  and  Plymouth,  in  their  liberal  policy 
for  the  encouragement  of  schools  of  learning  and 
good  morals.  In  Connecticut,  every  town  was  oblig- 
ed by  law  to  support  a  school  for  instruction  in  read- 
ing and  writing,  if  the  number  of  families  amounted 
to  fifty ;  and  in  every  county  town,  a  grammar 
school  was  instituted.  "  Large  tracts  of  land  were 
given  and  appropriated,  by  the  legislature,  to  afford 
them  a  permanent  support." 

While  the  resources  of  these  colonies  did  not  allow 
them  to  establish  a  college  among  themselves,  they 
contributed  liberally  to  the  support  of  the  college  at 
Cambridge.  Frequent  contributions  were  made  for 
that  institution,  and  money  was  paid  from  their  pub- 
lick  treasury.  The  inhabitants,  for  a  series  of  years, 
educated  their  sons  at  that  university.!  But  the  evil 
of  sending  their  sons  so  far  for  an  education,  and  a 
desire  of  multiplying  the  means  of  disseminating 

*  TrumbulPs  Hist.  Connecticut,  Vol.  i.  p.  303. 
t  Trumbull,  Vol.  i.  p.  304. 


15 

knowledge,  induced  them  as  early  as  1654,  to  at- 
tempt the  foundation  of  a  college  in  New  Haven. 
Though  much  interest  was  excited,  and  some  liberal 
donations  made,  yet  the  patronage  of  the  colonies  was 
too  inefficient  for  the  magnitude  of  the  object,  and 
all  their  exertions  ended  in  the  establishment  of  a 
grammar  school.  Connecticut  and  New  Haven,  after 
a  series  of  difficulties  with  each  other,  were,  at  length, 
united  in  one  colony.  In  1700,  their  united  exer- 
tions established  Yale  College  at  New  Haven.  This 
institution  originated  with  the  clergy,  and  its  man- 
agement was,  for  some  time,  confined  exclusively  to 
them.  It  early  received  an  efficient  patronage,  both 
from  private  and  publick  munificence.  The  sale  of 
one  hundred  and  seven  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
ninety-three  acres  of  publick  land,  granted  to  Con- 
necticut by  Massachusetts,  at  the  close  of  a  long  and 
obstinate  controversy,  afforded  the  colony  an  oppor- 
tunity to  add  six  hundred  and  eighty-three  pounds  to 
the  funds  of  the  college. 

The  efforts  of  New  Hampshire  for  the  support  of 
free  schools,  were  more  feeble,  and  suffered  more  in- 
terruptions, than  those  of  Massachusetts  and  Connec- 
ticut. Dartmouth  College,*  at  Hanover,  had  its 
origin  from  an  Indian  charity  school  in  Lebanon, 
Connecticut.  In  1770,  it  was  removed  to  Hanover, 
and  incorporated  with  the  privileges  of  a  college.  Its 

*  For  a  more  full  account  of  the  origin  and  early  history  of 
this  institution,  see  Adams'  History  of  New  England,  p.  508  ; 
and  Belknap's  Hist,  New  Hampshire,  Vol.  ii,  pp.  349 — 355. 


16 

funds  consist  principally  in  lands,  a  great  part  of 
which  arc  not  yet  productive.  A  college  was  found- 
ed in  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations,  at  nearly  the  same  time  the  college  was 
established  in  New  Hampshire.  These  institutions, 
together  with  the  primary  and  grammar  schools, 
which  have  been  before  described,  constitute  all  the 
publick  provisions  for  education  in  New  England, 
while  it  remained  under  colonial  government.  There 
is  no  period  in  the  history  of  our  country  more  inter- 
esting than  that,  while  the  colonies  were  struggling 
with  the  difficulties  incident  to  a  new  settlement,  and 
constantly  manifesting  their  impatience  of  colonial 
dependence.  There  is  no  trait  in  their  policy  more 
important  in  its  results  upon  the  country,  than  their 
steady  and  efficient  encouragement  of  the  free  schools. 
Though  liable  to  frequent  jealousies  among  them- 
selves, and  involved  in  constant  and  harassing  wars 
with  the  natives,  and  the  French  colonies  on  their 
northern  boundary,  they  still  carried  forward  with 
few  interruptions,  the  great  work  of  making  a  moral 
and  enlightened  people.  Though  each  of  the  colon- 
ies conducted  its  system  of  schools  in  a  manner 
somewhat  peculiar  to  itself;  yet  all  proceeded  upon 
the  same  general  principle,  which  was  to  afford  the 
means  of  learning  to  read  and  write,  together  with 
some  knowledge  of  arithmetick,  to  every  individual. 
With  such  a  system,  and  so  executed,  few  could  be 
found  so  unfortunate  as  not  to  have  learned  the  rudi- 
ments of  reading,  spelling,  writing,  and  arithmetick. 


17 

The  standard  of  common  education,  at  the  period  of 
our  history  before  the  revolution,  was  probably  not 
very  high.  But  it  was  much,  to  give  to  all  such  op- 
portunities, as  enabled  them  to  acquire  knowledge  suffi- 
cient to  transact  business  in  the  common  concerns  of 
life.  It  was  by  these  means,  limited  as  they  were, 
that  a  whole  community  were  prepared  to  know  their 
rights,  and  to  appreciate  the  free  enjoyment  of  them. 
The  free  schools,  and  the  laws  for  their  support, 
probably  acted  and  reacted  upon  each  other.  The 
laws  originating  in  those  enlightened  minds,  which 
could  foresee  and  estimate  their  effects,  raised  the 
character  of  the  people,  by  the  dissemination  of 
knowledge,  to  such  a  degree  as  enabled  them  to  trace 
their  happy  condition  to  its  true  source.  And  the 
intelligence  and  improved  condition  of  the  country, 
were  the  surest  pledges,  that  a  liberal  construction 
would  be  put  upon  the  laws  for  the  schools.  During 
the  strong  excitement,  which  prevailed,  when  the 
causes  of  the  revolution  were  hastening  on  the  crisis, 
the  attention,  which  had  been  paid  to  the  subject  of  edu- 
cation, was,  probably,  for  a  time  somewhat  diverted. 
All  attention  and  interest  were  absorbed  by  the  momen- 
tous questions  in  agitation,  upon  the  result  of  which 
depended  the  existence  of  a  nation.  But  when  the  in- 
dependence of  the  country  was  achieved,  and  the 
Federal  and  State  constitutions  adopted,  the  publick 
attention  was  again  turned  to  the  system  of  free 
schools.  The  zeal  with  which  they  were  now  pa- 
tronized, and  the  liberality  with  which  higher  semina- 


18 


ries  were  founded,  and  endowed,  evinced  that  a 
grateful  posterity  were  not  unmindful  of  the  treasure, 
which  had  been  committed  to  their  keeping.  Since 
the  adoption  of  the  Federal  constitution,  the  means 
of  education  have  been  vastly  increased  in  every  part 
of  the  United  States.  In  most  of  the  states,  which 
have  been  incorporated  since  the  revolution,  reserva- 
tions of  land  to  a  large  amount  are  made  for  the  en- 
couragement of  schools  and  colleges.  As  the  settle- 
ment of  the  new  states  goes  on,  and  population 
increases,  these  lands  will  be  improved,  and  become 
productive.  So  the  younger  sisters  of  the  family  of 
the  United  States  have  resources  for  the  dissemina- 
tion of  knowledge,  which  will  increase,  precisely  as 
the  population  increases,  and  the  wants  of  the  people 
become  more  urgent.  What  the  original  states  of  the 
Union,  by.  whose  exertions  and  sacrifices  this  terri- 
tory was  achieved,  have  received  as  an  equivalent 
for  such  copious  concessions  in  favour  of  the  new 
states,  I  am  not  able  to  say.  Nor  am  I  sure  they 
have  received  any  equivalent.  But  this  is  a  question, 
with  which  I  am,  at  present,  not  much  interested. 
Whether  the  appropriations  for  education  in  the  west- 
ern states  have  been  made  by  mutual  and  equal  con- 
cessions from  all  the  states,  or  whether  they  are  made 
by  the  old  states  in  favour  of  the  new,  the  effect  will 
be  the  same  on  the  condition  of  thox.',  w  ho  are  to 
enjoy  the  advantages  resulting  from  them.  As  the 
first  object  in  the  formation  of  every  government  is, 
to  provide  for  its  own  preservation  ;  and  as  the  general 


19 

diffusion  of  knowledge  and  virtue  is  the  most  effec- 
tual, if  not  the  only  means  of  insuring  stability  to 
republican  institutions,  the  policy  of  the  liberal  ap- 
propriations made  by  Congress  for  education,  in  every 
new  state  they  incorporate,  is  undoubtedly  an  en- 
lightened policy,  and  worthy  of  an  enlightened  and 
free  government.  In  some  of  the  states,  which, 
since  the  revolution,  were  inhabited  only  by  savages 
and  brutes,  schools  and  higher  seminaries  of  learning 
are  now  in  successful  operation,  affording  opportuni- 
ties and  advantages  for  education  adequate  to  prepare 
young  men  for  all  the  professions.  The  means  of 
education  are  not  yet  to  be  compared  with  those  of 
New  England  ;  but  the  time  is  not  far  distant,  when 
in  the  progress  of  events,  we  may  expect  rivals  to  our 
free  school  system,  in  the  West. 

The  means  of  education  in  New  England  have 
been  much  extended  in  all  departments,  from  the 
primary  schools  up  to  the  Colleges  and  University. 
But  whether  the  means  have  been  increased  in  as 
rapid  a  ratio  as  the  resources  and  demands  of  the 
country,  admits  of  a  doubt ;  or  rather,  it  is  certain 
they  have  not.  Though  schools,  academies,  and 
colleges,  have  been  founded,  and  encouraged  in 
all  the  New  England  States  to  a  good  degree,  none 
have  afforded  so  steady  and  efficient  a  patronage  to 
them,  as  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts.  Connec- 
ticut, by  publick  and  private  munificence,  has  built 
up  Yale  College  to  be  the  second  in  the  Union,  in 
the  means  it  affords  of  acquiring  a  thorough  and 


20 

complete  education.     They  have,   moreover,  several 
academies  of  most  respectable  standing,  both   in  re- 
gard   to    funds,  and  the  ability    of  their  instructers. 
These   afford   the   means  of  learning  the  languages, 
mathematicks,  and  other   branches    of  education  re- 
quired for  admission  to   the  College.     But  the  most 
remarkable  appropriation  for  extending  the  means  of 
a  common  education  to  all  ranks  and  classes  of  peo- 
ple, is  what  is  denominated  the  "  Connecticut  School 
Fund."     This  State  have   enjoyed  several   rare   op- 
portunities of  providing  for   their  schools   and   Col- 
lege.    Or   rather  they  have  improved  the  opportuni- 
ties, which   every   state   may   make  for  itself,  if   so 
disposed.     Some   appropriations  for  the   support  of 
common   schools  were   made   very   early,  but  what 
constitutes  the   principal    part   of  the   "  Connecticut 
School  Fund,"  was  obtained  in  1795,  by  the  sale  of 
lands  in  New  Connecticut,   or  what   was   called  the 
Western  Reserve.     These  lands  lie  in  the  northeast- 
ern part  of  the  present  State  of  Ohio.     They  were 
sold  for  $1,200,000.     This  sum   by  the  able  man- 
agement of  Mr.  Hillhouse,  the   Commissioner  of  the 
school   fund,   amounted,  according  to  his  report,    in 
May,    1822,   to  #1,700,000,    in   available  funds.* 
The  proceeds  of  this   sum,  amounting  to  somewhat 
more  than  sixty  thousand  dollars  a  year,  are  expend- 
ed for  the  support   of  common  schools.     The  whole 
State  is  divided  into  small  districts,  and   the   money 
has  been  apportioned  among   them,   according  to  the 

*  See  N.  A.  Review,  April  1823. 


21 

amount  of  taxable  property  ;  but  a  later  law  provides, 
that  it  s-hall  be  apportioned  according  to  the  number 
of  scholars  in  each  district.* 

*  By  the  law  of  the  State,  the  several  towns  in  it  are  divided 
into  districts,  for  the  schooling  of  the  children  and  youth.  Com- 
mittees are  appointed  to  examine  the  masters  and  mistresses  of 
the  schools,  and  take  care  that  they  are  duly  qualified  for  in- 
structers.  The  State  is  divided,  acccording  to  the  best  collection 
I  have  been  able  to  obtain,  into  about  1580  district  schools,  con- 
sisting of  different  numbers.  In  some  of  them,  there  are  an 
hundred  scholars  or  more  ;  in  others  there  are  not  more  than 
twenty.  On  an  average  they  will  amount  to  fifty-five,  or  fifty- 
six.  Between  one  third  and  one  half  of  the  whole  population  are 
schooled  the  greater  part  of  the  year — in  the  winter  and  part 
of  the  fall  and  spring,  by  masters,  and  in  the  warmer  and  more 
busy  season,  by  mistresses.  For  the  support  of  these  schools, 
the  legislature  have  appropriated  very  ample  funds  : — one  aris- 
ing from  new  lauds,  sold  by  the  then  colony,  many  years  since — 
the  other  from  the  sale  of  the  land  in  New  Connecticut.  These 
lands,  called  the  Western  Reserve,  sold  for  1,200,000  dollars. 
In  October  1815,  the  value  of  the  fund,  as  reported  by  the  com- 
mittee of  said  fund,  was  $1,501,914.89,  secured  by  mortgages 
on  lands.  Since  October  1815,  there  has  been  funded  and  add- 
ed to  the  principal,  106,759  dollars,  making  the  present  amount 
of  the  school  fund,  $1,608,673  89.  The  dividends  on  the 
school  funds,  paid  to  the  different  school  societies  in  the  State 
for  the  year  ending  March  1st,  1818,  on  the  list  of  1816,  is  as 
follows ; 

October  dividend,  1817  $19,76187 

March  dividend,  1818  39,643   11 

Allowance  of  two  dollars  on  the  1000  on 
the  list  of  1816,  payable  out  of  the 
treasury  on  the  old  fund,  13,174  68 


62,579  66* 

*  Append.  Trumlmll's  Hist  Conn.  Vol.  ii.  p.  547; 


The  effect  of  this  fund  upon  the  state  of  the 
schools,  has  not  been  such  as  might  have  been  anti- 
cipated. Notwithstanding  such  ample  means  arc 
afforded,  exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  common 
or  primary  schools,  it  is  questionable  whether  they 
are  in  any  better,  if  in  so  good  a  state,  as  the  same 
class  of  schools  in  Massachusetts.  The  vigilance  of 
the  people  in  appropriating  their  school  money  is  not 
quickened,  by  laying  their  purses  under  immediate 
contribution ;  and  means  brought  to  their  door,  with- 
out any  exertion  on  their  part,  are  suffered  to  pass  but 
half  improved.  Among  other  perversions  of  "  the 
fund,"  ignorant  and  indifferent  instructers  are  al- 
lowed to  absorb  a  portion  of  it,  which,  under  better 
management,  could  not  fail  of  a  great  and  a  happy 
effect.  But  when  the  only  object  of  this  large  appro- 
priation shall  be  kept  more  steadily  in  view,  and 
when  the  same  attention  and  ability  shall  be  paid  to 
the  judicious  expenditure  of  the  money,  which  has 
been  paid  to  the  accumulation  of  it,  this  State  will 
possess  advantages  for  educating,  to  a  certain  degree, 
the  whole  mass  of  the  people,  beyond  those  of  any 
other  State  in  the  Union. 


2S 


LETTER  III.* 


THE  constitution  of  Massachusetts,  adopted  in 
1780,  recognises  the  importance  of  education  in  the 
following  words  : 

"  Wisdom  and  knowledge,  as  well  as  virtue,  dif- 
fused generally  among  the  body  of  the  people,  be- 
ing necessary  for  the  preservation  of  their  rights  and 
liberties ;  and  as  these  depend  on  spreading  the  op- 
portunities and  advantages  of  education  in  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country,  and  among  the  different 
orders  of  the  people,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  Legis- 
latures and  Magistrates,  in  all  future  periods  of  this 
Commonwealth,  to  cherish  the  interests  of  literature 
and  the  sciences,  and  all  seminaries  of  them ;  espe- 
cially the  University  at  Cambridge,  public  schools, 
and  grammar  schools  in  the  towns." 

With  such  a  clause  in  the  constitution,  we  should 
have  anticipated  some  legislative  provisions  for  ed- 
ucation, sooner  than  at  the  end  of  nine  years.  But 
the  institutions  and  system  of  schools,  which  had 
obtained  under  the  Province  charter,  together  with 
the  exertions  of  individuals,  were  all  the  means  en- 

*  The  remarks  in  the  succeeding  letters  are  made  with  more 
particular  reference  to  the  schools  of  Massachusetts,  though  it  is 
presumed,  that  with  little  variation  they  would  be  equally  appli- 
cable to  the  schools  of  any  of  the  New  England  States. 


24 

joyed  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  before  the  year 
1789.  In  this  year  the  legislature  j>;i^<  i|  the  fol- 
lowing "  act  to  provide  for  the  instruction  of  youth, 
and  for  the  promotion  of  good  education." 

"  Whereas  the  Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth 
hath  declared  it  to  be  the  duty  of  the  General  Court 
to  provide  for  the  education  of  youth  ;  and  whereas 
a  general  dissemination  of  knowledge  and  virtue  is 
necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  every  State,  and  the 
very  existence  of  \ Commonwealth  : 

"  Sect.  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  in  General  Court  assembled,  and 
by  the  authority  of  the  same,  That  every  town  or 
district  within  this  Commonwealth,  containing  fifty 
families,  or  householders,  shall  be  provided  with  a 
school  master  or  school  masters,  of  good  morals,  to 
teach  children  to  read  and  write,  and  to  instruct  them 
in  the  English  language,  as  well  as  in  arithmetick, 
orthography,  and  decent  behaviour,  for  such  term  of 
time  as  shall  be  equivalent  to  six  months  for  one 
school  in  each  year.  And  every  town  or  district 
containing  one  hundred  families,  or  householders, 
shall  be  provided  with  such  school  master  or  school 
masters,  for  such  term  of  time  as  shall  be  equivalent 
to  twelve  months  for  one  school  in  each  year.  And 
every  town  or  district  containing  one  hundred  and 
fifty  families,  or  householders,  shall  be  provided  with 
such  school  master,  or  school  masters,  for  such  term 
of  time  as  shall  be  equivalent  to  six  months  in  each 
year ;  and  shall,  in  addition  thereto,  be  provided 


25 

with  a  schoolmaster,  or  schoolmasters,  as  above 
described,  to  instruct  children  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, for  such  term  of  time  as  shall  be  equivalent 
to  twelve  months  for  one  school  in  each  year.  And 
every  town  or  district  containing  two  hundred  fam- 
ilies, or  householders,  shall  be  provided  with  a  gram- 
mar schoolmaster,  of  good  morals,  well  instructed 
in  the  Latin,  Greek  and  English  languages ;  and 
shall,  in  addition  thereto,  be  provided  with  a  school- 
master or  schoolmasters,  as  above  described,  to  in- 
struct children  in  the  English  language,  foF  such 
term  of  time  as  shall  be  equivalent  to  twelve  months 
for  each  of  said  schools  in  each  year." 

Sect.  4.  "Be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority 
aforesaid,  That  it  shall  be  and  it  is  hereby  made  the 
duly  of  the  president,  professor  and  tutors  of  the 
Uurversity  of  Cambridge,  preceptors  and  teachers  of 
academies,  and  all  other  instructors  of  youth,  to  take 
diligent  care,  and  to  exert  their  best  endeavours  to 
impress  on  the  minds  of  children  and  youth  commit- 
ted to  their  care  and  instruction,  the  principles  of 
piety,  justice,  and  a  sacred  regard  to  truth,  love  to 
their  country,  humanity,  and  universal  benevolence 
sobriety,  industry  and  frugality,  chastity,  modera- 
tion and  temperance,  and  those  other  virtues  which 
are  the  ornament  of  human  society,  and  the  basis 
upon  which  the  republican  constitution  is  structured. 
And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  instructors  to  en- 
deavour to  lead  those  under  their  care  (as  their  ages 
and  capacities  will  admit)  into  a  particular  under- 
4 


26 

standing  of  the  tendency  of  the  beforementioned 
virtues,  to  preserve  and  perfect  a  republican  consti- 
tution, and  to  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty,  as  \\vll 
as  to  promote  their  future  happiness  ;  and  the  tenden- 
cy of  the  opposite  vices  to  slavery  and  ruin. 

And  to  the  end  that  improper  persons  may  not  be 
employed  in  the  important  offices  before  mentioned  : 

Sect.  5.  Be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority 
aforesaid,  That  no  person  shall  be  employed  as  a 
school  master  aforesaid,  unless  he  shall  have  receiv- 
ed an  education  at  some  College  or  University,  and 
before  entering  on  the  said  business,  shall  produce 
satisfactory  evidence  thereof,  or  unless  the  person  to 
be  employed  as  aforesaid  shall  produce  a  certificate 
from  a  learned  minister,  well  skilled  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages,  settled  in  the  town  or  place 
where  the  school  is  proposed  to  be  kept,  or  two  oth- 
er such  ministers  in  the  vicinity  thereof,  that  they 
have  reason  to  believe  that  he  is  well  qualified  to 
discharge  the  duties  devolved  upon  such  school  mas- 
ter by  this  Act ;  and,  in  addition  thereto,  if  for  a 
grammar  school,  "  that  he  is  of  competent  skill  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages,  for  the  said  purpose." 
And  the  candidate  of  either  of  the  descriptions  afore- 
said shall  moreover  produce  a  certificate  from  a  set- 
tled minister  of  the  town,  district,  parish  or  place, 
to  which  such  candidate  belongs,  or  from  the  select- 
men of  such  town  or  district,  or  committee  of  such 
parish  or  place,  "  That  to  the  best  of  his  or  their 
knowledge,  he  sustains  a  good  moral  character." 


27 

Provided  nevertheless,  This  last  certificate  respect- 
ing morals,  shall  not  be  deemed  necessary  where  the 
candidate  for  such  school  belongs  to  the  place  where 
the  same  is  proposed  to  be  actually  kept ;  it  shall 
however  be  the  duty  of  such  selectmen  or  commit- 
tee who  may  be  authorized  to  hire  such  school  mas- 
ter, specially  to  attend  to  his  morals. 

Sect,  7. • .  And  it  shall  be  the  duty 

of  the  minister  or  ministers  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
selectmen  (or  such  other  persons  as  shall  be  special- 
ly chosen  by  each  town  or  district  for  that  purpose) 
of  the  several  towns  or  districts,  to  use  their  influ- 
ence, and  best  endeavours,  that  the  youth  of  their 
respective  towns  and  districts  do  regularly  attend  the 
schools  appointed  and  supported  as  aforesaid,  for 
their  instruction ;  and  once  in  every  six  months  at 
least,  and  as  much  oftener  as  they  shall  determine 
it  necessary,  to  visit  and  inspect  the  several  schools 
in  their  respective  towns  or  districts,  and  shall  in- 
quire into  the  regulation  and  discipline  thereof,  and 
the  proficiency  of  the  scholars  therein,  giving  reason- 
able notice  of  the  time  of  their  visitation."* 

This  law,  you  will  perceive,  is  a  most  alarming 
relaxation  of  the  laws  under  the  Province  Charter. 
The  provision  under  the  coloy  charter,  that  towns 
of  more  than  five  hundred  families  should  support 
two  grammar  schools,  and  two  writing  schools,  had 
been  sunk  under  the  Province  Charter.  By  the 
statute  of  the  "  Commonwealth,"  towns  of  fifty 

*  Laws  Mass.  1789-  Chap.  1& 


28 

families  are  obliged  to  support  a  school  for  reading, 
u  riling,  &c.  only  six  months  of  the  year,  instead  of 
constantly,  as  before;  and  towns  of  two  Innulnd 
families  an-  obliged  to  be  provided  with  a  grammar 
school-master,  instead  of  towns  of  only  our  In/ mind 
families,  as  under  the  Province  law.  The  State  was 
under  some  temporary  embarrassments,  soon  afte? 
the  close  of  the  revolution,  which  is  the  only  reason 
that  occurs  for  such  a  departure  from  the  policy, 
\\hich  had  been  pursued  in  regard  to  schools,  from 
the  earliest  settlement  of  the  country.  The  resour- 
ces of  the  people  were  certainly  much  more  ade- 
quate to  the  support  of  schools,  after  the  establish- 
ment of  a  government  among  themselves,  than  while 
they  were  kept  in  duress  by  colonial  dependance ; 
or  while  they  were  sacrificing  every  thing  to  achieve 
their  independance.  But  the  effect  of  a  law,  so 
comprehensive  in  the  detail  as  the  school  law  of 
1789,  cannot  be  estimated  with  great  precision,  with- 
out taking  into  account  the  character  of  the  people 
for  whom  it  is  intended.  If  the  law  is  intended  to 
force  a  reluctant  people  to  exertions  much  beyond 
their  inclination  and  ability,  it  will  probably  be  ex- 
plained away  and  evaded,  till  it  is  reduced,  in  some 
good  degree,  to  their  wishes.  But  on  the  other  hand, 
if  the  law  indulges  a  relaxation  from  exertions,  nhico 
the  people  hat  r  lieen  accustomed  to  make,  and  \\hich 
they  have  made  cheerfully,  reali/iug  a  full  equiva- 
lent in  their  <;wn  condition,  they  will  execute  the  law 
upon  a  construction  even  beyond  its  intention.  This 


was  the  fact  in  the  case  of  the  school  law.  What 
the  law  neglected  to  provide  for,  was  supplied  in 
some  degree  by  the  exertions  of  individuals.  The 
laws  for  the  support  of  the  primary  free  schools  have 
never  been  executed  upon  a  niggardly  and  parsimo- 
nious construction.  The  public  mind  upon  this  sub- 
ject has  gone  much  before  the  laws.  They  have  fol- 
lowed at  a  large  distance,  rather  than  stimulated  and 
controlled  any  interest.  The  towns  have,  in  many 
instances  made  appropriations  for  the  primary  schools, 
of  twice  the  sums  of  money  necessary  to  answer 
the  letter  of  the  law.  The  schools  provided  for  in 
the  above  law,  are  open  to  children  of  all  classes, 
and  the  expense  is  paid  by  a  tax  on  the  people. 
Each  town  is  made  responsible  for  the  execution  of 
the  laws  within  its  jurisdiction.  And,  to  give  inter- 
est and  efficacy  to  the  system,  it  is  made  the  duty 
of  the  minister  and  selectmen,  or  a  committee  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose,  to  overlook  the  schools, — to 
visit  them,  at  least,  once  in  six  months, — to  employ 
and  approve  the  instructers, — and  direct  in  the  se- 
lection of  school  books.  Although  there  are  some 
instances  of  negligence  and  indifference,  this  duty 
is  generally  performed  with  cheerfulness  and  fidelity. 
New  England  possesses  some  peculiar  advantages 
for  carrying  into  effect  its  system  of  education.  It 
is  divided  into  small  townships  or  separate  corpora- 
tions of  from  five  to  seven  miles  square:  The  res- 
ponsibility of  these  small  corporations  is  more  likely 
to  ensure  a  more  vigilant  discharge  of  their  duty, 


30 

than  if  they  were  larger,  and  the  subject  of  tin -ir 
responsibility  less  immediately  under  their  iiiNpec- 
tion.  As  the  population  is  scattered  over  almost  the 
whole  territory,  and  the  children  are  often  young, 
who  attend  the  primary  schools,  it  has  been  found 
convenient  to  divide  each  town  into  smaller  districts 
for  this  object.  Thus  a  school  i>  curried  to  the  door, 
or  at  least  into  the  neighbourhood  of  every  family. 
Each  township  constitutes  from  four  to  twelve  dis- 
tricts ;  and  none  are  so  far  removed  from  all  schools, 
that  an  attendance  on  some  of  them  is  not  easy. 
The  appropriations  for  schooling  in  each  town,  are 
adequate  to  support  a  school  in  each  district,  from 
three  to  six  months  in  the  year,  and  often  longer. 
The  money  is  raised  by  a  tax  on  the  property  of  the 
town,  principally,  a  very  small  proportion  arising  from 
the  polls.  It  is  distributed  among  the  districts,  some- 
times, in  proportion  to  what  each  pays  of  tbe  tax ; 
but  oftener,  a  more  republican  principle  prevails,  and 
it  is  divided  according  to  the  number  of  scholars. 
There  is  one  other  principle  of  distribution,  which  is 
sometimes  adopted,  in  those  towns  not  satisfied  with 
either  of  the  above  methods.  That  is,  they  divide 
the  money  raised  as  above  among  the  districts,  in  the 
compound  ratio  of  the  number  of  scholars  and  the 
tax  paid  in  such  district.  But  this  requires  so  much 
mathematicks,  that  even  those,  who  acknowledge 
the  justness  of  the  principle,  commonly  content  them- 
selves to  do  less  justice,  and  spare  their  heads  the 
trouble  of  calculation. 


31 

These  appropriations  are  expended,  a  part   in  the 
Minimer   months   for   the  advantage  of  the   younger 
children,  and  a  part  in  the  winter  months  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  those,  who  are   more  advanced  in 
age,  and  whose   labour  cannot  be  spared  by   their 
poor  and  industrious  parents.     The   summer  schools 
are  taught  by  females  ;  and   children  of  both  sexes, 
of  from  four  to  ten  years  attend,  females  often  much 
older.     In  these  schools  from   twenty   to   forty,  and 
sometimes  twice  that  number  of  children,  are  taught 
reading,  spelling,  and  English  grammar,  by  a  single 
instructress.     In  the  more  improved   of  this   class  of 
schools,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography   are  add- 
ed to  their  usual   studies.     In  the   leisure  time    be- 
tween lessons  the  female  part  of  the  school,  are  de- 
Toted  to  the  various  branches  of  needlework.     These 
primary    schools,    however     humble     the     branches 
taught,  and  young  the   children,  to  whom   they   are 
taught,  have  a  strong  influence  in  forming  the  char- 
acters   of   the  young.      Although    the    progress    in 
studies  may  be  inconsiderable,  yet   they   are   impor- 
tant for  the   notions  of    order,   decency,   and    good 
manners,  which  they  inculcate ;  and   for  the   habits 
of  attention  and   industry,  which   are   there  formed. 
The  whole  expence  of  a  school  of  this  kind,  taught 
by  a   female,  exclusive  of  the  house,  which   in   the 
country,  costs  but  a  trifle,  does  not   exceed   from 
two  to  three  dollars  per  week.     For  this  very  incon- 
siderable sum,  thirty,  forty,  or  fifty  children,  are  not 
only  kept   from  idleness  and   consequent  depravity, 


but  arc  taught  much,  which  will  be  useful  to  them 
in  life.  In  the  winter  months  an  instructor  is  em- 
ployed, and  arithmetic,  geography,  and  history,  are 
added  to  the  studies  of  the  summer  schools.  These 
schools  bring  together  for  instruction  those  children 
and  youth,  whose  labour  is  too  valuable  to  be  dis- 
pensed with,  in  the' season  which  gives  the  agricul- 
turist most  employment.  The  total  expense  of  a 
school  of  this  kind  amounts  to  from  six  to  ten  dol- 
lars per  week  ;  and  it  contains  from  thirty  to  eighty, 
or  a  hundred  scholars. 

Such  are  the  schools  where  the  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple must  begin,  and  now,  end  their  education.  The 
next  in  ordej  from  the  primary  schools  were  the 
grammar  schools,  properly  so  called.  These  were 
established  by  the  law  of  1789,  in  all  towns  con- 
taining two  hundred  families.  The  object  and  the 
tendency  of  these  higher  schools  were,  to  raire  the 
standard  of  instruction,  and  elicit  talents  and  genius 
wherever  they  might  be  found.  Many  through  the. 
medium  of  these  schools  have  found  their  way  to 
the  University,  and  become  distinguished  in  society, 
who  might  otherwise  never  have  known  their  own 
powers,  or  thought  it  possible  to  aspire  to  the  advan- 
tages of  a  public  education.  But  this  part  of  tin 
system  has  never  received  that  attention,  which  iis 
importance  demands.  It  has  always  been  viewed 
with  prejudice,  and  been  thought  to  be  an  institu- 
tion for  the  accommodation  of  a  few,  at  the  expense 
of  the  many.  In  many  places,  for  want  of  a  thor- 


33 

ough  knowledge  of  the  subject,  those  for  whose  par- 
ticular advantage  the  grammar  schools  were  intend- 
ed, have  been  most  opposed  to  their  support.  The 
law,  therefore,  has  been  borne  with  impatience, — 
has  been  explained  away  and  evaded, — till  at  length, 
the  prejudice  has  been  sent  into  the  legislature,  and 
the  whole  provision  is  struck  out  of  the  statute  book. 
At  least,  the  remnant  which  remains  can  be  of  no 
possible  use  for  the  encouragement  of  the  schools. 
All  towns  in  the  Commonwealth  are  now  excused 
from  supporting  grammar  schools,  except  five  or  six 
of  the  most  populous.  And  these  are  precisely  the 
towns,  which  least  need  legislative  interference.  A 
law  of  the  legislature  to  oblige  Boston,  for  example, 
to  make  appropriations  for  schools,  is  preposterous, 
when  that  city  already  expends  upon  the  education 
of  its  children  and  youth,  nearly  as  much  as  the 
whole  remaining  state.  But  during  the  series  of 
years,  while  the  grammar  schools  have  been  neglect- 
ed, the  friends  of  the  free  schools  have  had  an  ap- 
peal to  those  liberal  and  enlightened  minds,  which 
could  better  foresee  the  happy  effects  of  a  different 
policy.  And  this  appeal  has  never  been  made  in 
vain.  Whenever  the  public  interest  in  schools  has 
declined  or  been  diverted,  by  the  various  necessities, 
which  press  upon  a  people,  in  a  comparatively  new 
country,  it  has  soon  been  roused  again,  and  stimulat- 
ed in  the  proper  direction.  If  appropriations  have 
not  been  so  liberal  as  might  be  wished,  those  have 
always  been  found,  who  would  encourage  the  cause 
5 


34 

by  endowments  for  schools  of  a  higher  onlrr.  These 
schools  or  academies,  as  they  are  more  frequently 
called,  have  been  generally  founded  by  individuals, 
and  afterwards  made  corporations  with  grants  of  laud 
or  money  from  the  State  authorities.  They  have 
now  become  very  numerous  throughout  New  Eng- 
land. In  Massachusetts,  they  are  found  in  every 
county,  and  oftentimes  within  ten  or  fifteen  miles  of 
each  other.  They  have  generally  been  made  a  class 
above  the  grammar  schools.  Here,  young  men  are 
prepared  for  teachers  in  the  primary  schools, — for 
mercantile  life, — or  for  the  University.  This  class 
of  schools  is  not  entirely  free.  The  instructer  is 
supported  in  part  by  the  proceeds  of  funds,  which 
have  arisen  from  private  or  public  munificence  ;  and 
in  part,  by  a  tax  on  each  scholar.  For  the  rich  and 
those  in  easy  circumstances,  these  schools  answer 
the  same,  and  probably  a  better  purpose,  than  the 
grammar  schools,  contemplated  by  the  late  law  ;  but 
they  are  out  of  the  reach  of  the  poor.  Many  a 
poor  and  industrious  man  would  spare  the  labour  of 
his  son,  and  give  him  an  opportunity  to  learn,  per- 
haps to  fit  for  college,  while  the  means  were  in  his 
own  town,  who  could  but  ill  afford  a  considerable 
tax  for  tuition,  and  the  price  of  board  in  a  neigh- 
bouring town.  This  will  be  the  effect  of  the  repeal 
of  the  school  law.  The  rich,  at  a  little  more  ex- 
pense to  be  sure,  but  that  is  of  no  consequence  with 
them,  will  patronize  and  improve  the  condition  of 
the  academies  for  their  own  accommodation ;  while 


35 

the  poor  will  be  left  with  no  advantages  above  the 
primary  schools.  One  avenue,  and  that  a  broad  and 
easy  one  for  the  progress  of  genius  in  humble  life, 
is  now  shut  on  a  large  proportion  of  the  community  ; 
and  talents, 

"  Th'  applause  of  listening  senates  to  command," 
are  doomed  to  a  virtual  death  by  the  operation  of 
this  measure.  Its  effects  are  the  more  to  be  dread- 
ed, because  they  will  follow  their  cause  slowly,  and 
be  felt  most  at  some  distant  period,  when  it  will  be 
most  difficult  to  trace  the  evil  to  its  source.  The 
means  of  education,  though  the  most  powerful  in- 
strument, by  which  a  government  may  effect  the 
character  of  the  people,  are  not  an  instrument,  by 
which  they  can  produce  an  immediate  result.  As 
the  good  to  be  expected  from  liberal  appropriations, 
though  sure  to  follow,  is  realized  to  the  country,  on- 
ly at  a  distance  from  the  outfit ;  so  the  evils  of 
withholding  encouragement,  though  as  sure  to  fol- 
low, are  still  at  a  distance.  But  happy  experience 
ought  to  have  taught  this  community,  how  to  esti- 
mate the  magnitude  of  the  good  and  evil  of  the  dif- 
ferent policies,  even  though  they  are  at  a  distance. 
We  are  now  in  the  possession  and  enjoyment  of 
those  advantages  for  education,  purchased  by  the 
sacrifices  of  our  ancestors.  And  the  question  in  re- 
gard to  appropriations  at  the  present  day,  is,  whether 
we  shall  transmit  those  advantages  unimpaired  to 
posterity  ;  or  whether  we  shall  shut  our  eyes  on  the 
future,  and  suffer  the  animating  and  vivifying  princi- 


96 

pie  of  our  tree  government  to  be  extinguished  by  ne- 
glect, or  perverted  by  a  heedless  and  inefficient  ui- 
couragement.  We  all  profess  the  deepest  venera- 
tion for  the  character  of  the  pilgrims,  and  those  char- 
acters, who  laid  the  foundation  of  our  free  govern- 
ment ;  and  can  we  consistently  depart  from  those 
traits  in  their  policy,  which  have  made  them  venera- 
ble, and  our  government  free?  To  praise  the  insti- 
tutions and  happy  state  of  our  country,  and  to  con- 
gratulate ourselves  on  the  free  enjoyment  of  them, 
is  not  so  much  to  praise  ourselves,  as  it  is  to  praise 
the  liberal  and  enlightened  policy  of  those,  by  whose 
wisdom  and  foresight  we  have  inherited  such  privi- 
leges and  happiness.  Posterity  will  judge  of  our 
policy,  at  some  future  period,  by  its  effects  on  their 
condition,  as  we  now  judge  of  the  policy  of  our  an- 
cestors, by  its  effects  on  our  condition.  If  we  com- 
pare the  encouragement  afforded  to  schools  and  sem- 
inaries of  learning,  by  the  pilgrims  of  Plymouth  and 
New  England,  with  their  resources ;  and  then  in 
connexion,  compare  the  encouragement  afforded 
them  at  the  present  day,  with  our  resources  ;  we 
shall  be  astonished  and  disgusted  with  our  niggardly 
and  parsimonious  policy.  We  seem  to  rely  entirely 
upon  the  liberality  and  munificence  of  individuals  to 
redeem  our  degeneracy  in  this  respect.  What  would 
our  ancestors  have  though  of  their  posterity,  those 
ancestors,  who  nearly  two  hundred  years  since, 
amidst  all  the  embarrassments  of  a  new  settlement, 
provided  by  law  for  the  support  of  grammar  schools 


37 

in  all  towns  of  one  hundred  families,  "  the  master 
thereof  being  able  to  instruct  youth  so  far  as  they 
may  be Jitted for  the  University?"  or  what  would 
our  fathers  have  thought  of  their  children,  those  fath- 
ers who,  in  1780,  enjoined  it  in  their  constitution, 
upon  "  the  Legislatures  and  Magistrates,  in  all  fu- 
ture periods  of  this  Commonwealth,  to  cherish  the 
interests  of  literature  and  the  sciences,  and  all 
seminaries  of  them  ;  especially  the  University  at 
Cambridge,  public  schools,  and  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS 
in  the  towns ;"  if  they  could  have  foreseen,  that 
after  one  relaxation  and  another,  in  forty  years,  those 
children  would  so  far  forget  their  duty  to  "  cherish 
the  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS,"  as  to  strike  them  out  of 
existence  ?  What  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple of  this  State  is,  which  renders  the  support  of  this 
class  of  schools  unnecessary,  impoliticly  or  unjust, 
I  have  never  been  able  to  understand.  And,  al- 
though I  have  been  at  some  pains  on  the  subject,  I 
have  never  yet  learned,  what  the  arguments  were, 
which  carried  the  repeal  of  the  law  through  the  last 
General  Court.  Arguments  there  must  have  been, 
and  strong  ones,  or  such  an  alarming  innovation 
would  never  have  been  suffered,  upon  an  institution, 
to  which  the  people,  till  quite  lately,  have  always 
expressed  the  strongest  attachment.  Was  that  class 
of  schools  considered  unnecessary  ?  If  so,  what 
has  made  them  unnecessary  ?  Either  the  people 
have  no  longer  need  to  receive  the  kind  of  instruc- 
tion, those  schools  were  intended  to  afford  ;  or  they 


409462 


38 

must  receive  the  same  instruction  in  some  other  way. 
The  policy,  and  in  our  government,  the  necessity  of 
eliciting  the  talents  of  the  country,  by  every  possible 
means,  will  be  demonstrated,  when  we  consider  how 
many  of  our  most  distinguished  Jurists,  Statesmen, 
and  Divines,  have  received  their  early  instruction  in 
the  primary  and  grammar  schools  of  some  obscure 
country  village.  None,  I  believe,  can  be  found,  who 
will  say,  the  people  have  no  longer  need  of  such  fa- 
cilities, for  bringing  forward  to  notice  the  promising 
talents  of  their  children,  and  of  giving  to  our  coun- 
try some  of  its  greatest  benefactors.  Then  by  abol- 
ishing the  grammar  schools,  it  is  expected  the  peo- 
ple will  receive  the  same  instruction  in  some  other 
way.  But  two  possible  sources  occur,  which  prom- 
ise in  any  degree  to  supply  the  chasm  in  the  system. 
The  primary  schools  on  the  one  hand, — and  the 
academies  on  the  other.  Neither  of  these  sources 
will  answer  the  expectation,  or  be  adequate  to  the 
purpose.  The  primary  schools  will  not  come  up  to 
the  necessary  standard,  either  as  they  are  contem- 
plated by  the  law,  or  as  they  are,  and  promise  to  be, 
supported  by  the  people.  And  the  academies  are 
out  of  the  reach  of  precisely  that  class  of  people, 
who  most  need  the  encouragement  offered  by  the 
late  grammar  schools.  The  effect  of  the  repeal  of 
the  law  upon  the  primary  schools,  is  as  yet,  but  mat- 
ter of  conjecture.  It  is  probably  expected  by  some, 
and  it  is  certainly  to  be  hoped  by  all,  that  striking 
from  the  system  the  class  of  schools  immediately 


39 

above  them,  they  will  be  improved  so  as  in  some  de- 
gree to  supply  the  place  of  the  higher  schools.  If 
this  expectation  had  any  foundation,  or  if  there  were 
any  probability,  it  would  be  realized  in  some  good 
degree,  it  would  not  be  so  much  a  matter  of  regret, 
that  the  late  measure  was  adopted.  But  several 
reasons  induce  me  to  believe,  that  the  expectation  is 
altogether  visionary  ;  and  that  the  measure  will  have 
a  tendency  to  sink,  rather  than  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  the  primary  schools.  Although  the  late  law 
has  not  been  executed  for  some  years  upon  a  very 
liberal  construction,  yet  the  knowledge,  that  it  exist- 
ed, had  some  effect,  to  raise  the  character  of  instruc- 
ters  in  the  lower  schools.  To  benefit  the  schools, 
all  possible  motives  should  be  offered  to  raise  the 
qualifications  of  the  teachers.  The  repeal  of  the 
law  has  removed  the  strongest  barrier  to  prevent  the 
obtrusions  of  ignorance.  Experience  has  long  since 
proved,  that  the  approbation  of  the  selectmen  as  to 
the  character,  and  of  the  minister  as  to  the  literary 
qualifications,  is  no  sufficient  check,  upon  the  pre- 
tensions of  incompetent  instructers.  Those,  who 
aspire  to  the  place  of  teachers  in  the  primary  schools, 
are  very  frequently  found  in  the  families  of  the  very 
men,  whose  approbation  is  required.  And  however 
vigilant  and  candid  they  may  intend  to  be,  in  the 
discharge  of  their  duty  in  this  respect,  paternal  affec- 
tion is  a  most  deceitful  medium,  through  which  a 
father  looks  upon  the  merits  of  his  son.  And  the 
condition  of  the  clergy,  in  the  country,  particularly 


40 

at  the  present  day,  is  not  such  as  would  allow  us  to 
expect  from  them,  a  very  positive   and   decided  veto 
in  such  matters,  upon   the  pleasure  of  the   principal 
inhabitants  of  their  towns.     We  have  now  no  check-. 
but  the  very  inefficient  one  above  described,  to  pre- 
vent   the    employment    of    incompetent    instruct)  i-. 
And  since  the  interest  and  influence  of  the  candidate 
for  such  employment,  as  well  as  the  interest  and  in- 
fluence  of   his    friends,  will    always    be    upon    the 
wrong  side ;  it  is  much  to  be   feared,  that  the  mass 
of  instructers,  in  the  primary  schools,  will  receive  no 
other  opportunities  for  improvement,  than  are  afford- 
ed in  the  very  schools,  where  they  commence  teach- 
ing.      If   this  view  of    the   subject   is  correct,   the 
strong  tendency  of  the  present  arrangement  must  be, 
to  sink  the  condition   of  the  primary   schools.     And 
the  only,  or  at  least,   the   greatest  counteracting  in- 
fluence,   which   has   existed   heretofore,  is   removed, 
by  abolishing  the  late  grammar  schools.     Few  towns 
have   supported  a  grammar  school   the  whole  con- 
tinued  year,   at   one  place.     They  have    employed 
several    instructers,   qualified  as  the   law  directed, 
and  by  opening  several  schools  of  this  kind  at  the 
same  time,  have  made  up  the   amount  of  a  year,  all 
perhaps,  during  the  winter  months.     This  evasion, 
which  was  a  very  general  one  in  those  towns,  which 
took  the  trouble  to  evade  at  all,  you   will   perceive, 
was  virtually  putting  the  grammar  schoolmasters  into 
the   primary   schools.     The    consequence    has   been 
what   we    should   expect.     Although    the    grammar 


41 

schools  have  in  many  places  disappeared  in  form 
and  name,  yet  the  people  have  a  tolerable  equivalent, 
in  the  vastly  improved  condition  of  the  primary 
schools.  Even  those,  who  have  commenced  teach- 
ers from  some  of  these  schools,  have  possessed  all 
the  advantage  of  the  grammar  schools,  intended  by 
the  law.  The  existence  of  the  law,  therefore,  even 
with  so  very  inefficient  an  execution  of  it,  has  had 
the  direct  tendency  to  improve  the  condition  of  those 
schools,  in  which  grammar  masters  have  been  em- 
ployed ;  and  an  indirect  influence  on  the  other 
schools,  by  better  qualifying  those  who  have  and  will 
commence  teachers,  with  no  advantage^  above  those 
afforded  in  the  common  schools. 

The  repeal  of  the  law  obviates  the  necessity  of 
the  evasion,  which  I  have  described  as  operating  so 
favourably  upon  the  primary  schools.  And  as  the 
qualifications  of  the  instructers  are  diminished,  the 
character  of  the  schools  must  decline.  To  this,  prob- 
ably, all  will  readily  assent.  But  it  may,  perhaps,  be 
said,  the  qualifications  of  the  instructers  are  as  high, 
for  all  practical  and  useful  purposes,  as  they  were 
under  the  former  law,  as  it  was  executed.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  not  fair  or  just  to  reason  from  the 
law  as  it  was  executed,  rather  than  as  it  should  have 
been  executed.  In  the  next  place,  allowing  our- 
selves so  to  reason,  we  shall  not,  I  believe,  arrive  at 
the  same  result.  The  qualifications  of  the  grammar 
schoolmasters,  were,  that  they  should  be  "of  good 
morals,  well  instructed  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
6 


English  languages."     This   class  of  schools   is   now 
abolished,  and  "  Geography"  is  added  to  the  former 
qualifications   of    the    teachers  of    primary   schools. 
Allowing  the  two  classes  of  schools   to  ha\e    been 
perfect  I  \  amalgamated,   which  is   a  great  concession 
in  point  of  fact,  as  well  as  acknowledging  a  great 
perversion  of  the  law  ;   we  have  dispensed  with  Lat- 
in and  (neck,  and  require  Geography  ill  their  stead. 
1  have  no  desire  to   lessen  the   estimation,  in   which 
geography  is  held  as  a  study  peculiarly   adapted   to 
our  primary  schools.     And  I    am    ready  to  concede, 
that   probably   ten   will  wish    to    study    geography, 
where  one  would  wish   to  study  Latin  and   Greek. 
Now,  if  an  instructer,  who  is  qualified  to  teach  Lat- 
in and  Greek,  could  not  by  any  possibility  be  quali- 
fied, at   the  same  time,  to  teach  Geography,  and  all 
the  minor  studies  of  our  schools,  I    should  consider 
myself  as   having  conceded    the    whole    argument. 
But  this  is  not  the  fact.     These  qualifications  are  so 
far  from  being  incompatible,  that  they  generally  ex- 
ist in  a  superior  degree  in  connexion  with  each  other. 
The  connexion,  to  be  sure,  is  not  so  essential,  that 
a  man  may  not  be  a  very  good  teacher  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  still  know  very   little  of  any   thing  else. 
Still  as  the   studies   are  arranged   in  all  our  schools, 
academies,  and  colleges,  where  young  men  are  pre- 
pared for  teachers,  all  the  elementary  studies,  includ- 
ing geography,  are  generally   taught  before  the  lan- 
guages.    So  that  by  adding  them   to  the  qualifica- 
tions, even  if  it  were  never  required  of  the  instruct- 


43 

ers  to  teach  thein,  We  ensure  more  mature  and  ac- 
complished scholars  in  those  branches,  which  are 
more  frequently  and  generally  taught.  I  would  not 
be  understood  to  discuss,  much  less  to  approve  this 
arrangement  of  studies,  for  those  destined  to  be 
scholars  by  profession.  Such  arrangement  exists, 
and  I  avail  myself  of  the  fact  for  my  present  purpose. 
But  besides  ensuring  better  teachers  for  the  common 
branches,  there  are  always  some,  who  would  attend 
to  the  languages,  as  preparatory  to  a  publick  educa- 
tion, if  they  had  opportunity.  And  if  affording  the 
opportunity  to  all  of  every  town,  should  be  the 
means  of  drawing  out  but  few  of  superiour  talents,  even 
those  few  are  worthy  of  the  highest  consideration  and 
regard  from  the  publick,  who  possess  them.  These 
and  similar  considerations,  which  I  cannot  here 
state,  have  convinced  me,  I  know  not  whether  they 
will  convince  any  one  else,  that  the  repeal  of  the 
grammar  school  law,  even  if  we  could  never  hope 
it  would  be  executed  upon  a  more  liberal  construc- 
tion, than  it  has  been  for  the  last  ten  years,  will  have 
a  direct  tendency  to  sink  the  condition  and  prospects 
of  the  primary  schools. 

There  is  one  other  point  of  view,  in  which  the 
effect  of  the  measure  will  be  equally  pernicious  and 
equally  certain.  I  mean  its  effect  upon  the  man- 
ners of  the  scholars.  This  was  a  consideration 
deemed  so  important  as  to  be  provided  for  in  the  law 
of  1789.  In  proportion  as  the  qualifications  of  in- 
structers  are  lessened,  it  becomes  easy  for  those  to 


44 

commence  teachers,  who  have  had  no  advantages 
above  the  primary  schools.  And  although  good 
manners,  or  "  decent  behaviour"  have  no  esm-nlinl 
connexion  uith  the  other  accomplishments,  or  Latin 
and  Greek  in  particular,  yet  they  are  by  no  means 
incompatible.  And  those,  who  have  had  the  advan- 
tages of  the  higher  schools,  academies,  or  colleges, 
will  be  more  likely  to  have  acquired  some  refinement 
of  manners,  than  those,  who  begin  to  teach  without 
any  preparation,  except  in  the  very  place,  where  they 
have  themselves  been  taught. 

In  publick  and  large  seminaries  of  learning.  \\hieh 
bring  together  young  men  from  different  to\\  u^.  ^lates, 
and  sections  of  the  country,  the  change  in  habits, 
manners,  and  feelings  towards  each  other,  is  aston- 
ishingly rapid.  They  come  together  with  feelings 
and  prejudices,  and  oftentimes  with  a  dialect  peculiar 
to  the  different  places,  from  which  they  come,  and 
each  staring  and  wondering  at  the  excessive  strange- 
ness of  the  other.  But  a  very  short  time  loosens 
their  local  prejudices,  and  teaches  them,  that  all  <  \- 
cellence  is  not  peculiar  to  any  one  place.  The 
whole  exterior  and  deportment  of  the  young  man  is 
often  almost  entirely  transformed,  in  the  short  space 
of  a  fr\\  ueeks.  The  change  and  improvement  in 
this  respect  are  more  rapid  at  first,  and  quite  as  im- 
portant and  valuable  to  him,  as  his  acquisitions  in 
knowledge.  What  has  a  more  direct  tendency  to 
improve  "  the  manners"  and  deportment  of  the  chil- 
dren, who  attend  our  schools,  thau  to  observe  some 


45 

refinement  in  their  instructer  ?  Such  is  the  person- 
al influence  of  an  instructer  in  a  common  school,- 
that  whether  he  is  refined  or  vulgar,  or  whether  he 
attends  to  the  manners  of  his  pupils  or  not,  his  man- 
ners will  infallibly  be  imitated  and  copied  by  all,  for 
the  time,  as  a  model  of  perfection.  The  different 
sections  of  our  country  are  more  free  from  dialects 
of  the  same  language  than  any  other  in  the  world. 
AVhat  has  produced  this  uniformity  of  language,  so 
desirable  on  every  consideration,  but  our  public  and 
common  seminaries  of  learning, — the  frequent  and 
intimate  commercial  and  literary  intercourse  between 
different  parts  of  the  country, — and  the  numerous 
points  of  contact  between  the  educated  and  unedu- 
cated parts  of  the  community  ?  For  the  interest 
and  happiness  of  the  whole,  and  especially,  the  low- 
er and  uneducated  classes  of  the  community,  it  is 
certainly  desirable  these  points  of  contact  and  inter- 
course should  be  multiplied,  rather  than  diminished. 
For  these  reasons,  the  employment  of  instructers  in 
our  schools,  who  have  had  the  advantages  of  some 
publick  school  or  college,  is  an  object  of  great  con- 
sideration. Besides  being  the  most  direct  and  effec- 
tual means,  of  inculcating  "  decent  behaviour," — of 
reconciling  the  prejudices  of  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  different  classes  of  the  community ; 
there  is  still  another  point  of  view,  in  which  the 
measure  is  not  less  important.  It  tends  more  than 
any  thing  else,  to  lessen  the  distance  and  weaken 
the  jealousies,  whicfc  very  generally  subsist  between 


46 

the  educated  and  uneducated.  The  talent  N  and  ac- 
quirements of  a  young  man  of  puhlick  education  are 
often  lost  to  the  unlettered  community  for  some 
years,  while  they  have  a  delicious  season  of  mutual- 
ly hating  and  despising  each  other.  These  evils  are 
in  some  degree  obviated,  when,  1>\  tin-  kind  of  in- 
tercourse usually  snl»i>iing  between  a  /mh/irk 
instructer  and  the  publick,  they  are  taught  by  expe- 
rience their  mutual  worth  and  dependence  as  UK- in- 
ters of  the  same  body  politick. 

As  the  Academies  are  not  entirely  free  schools, 
we  cannot  calculate  upon  them  to  supply  instruction 
to  the  mass  of  the  people.  These  are  most  respect- 
able establishments,  and  some  of  them  are  hardly 
inferior  in  the  advantages,  they  afford  for  acquiring;  a 
thorough  education,  to  some  institutions,  which  are 
dignified  with  the  name  of  colleges.  It  is  not  de- 
sirable, that  their  condition  should  be  impaired. 
Nor  need  any  fears  be  entertained,  that  their  condi- 
tion will  be  impaired.  There  are  enough  in  the 
community,  who  duly  estimate  the  advantages  of  a 
good  education,  and  who  are  able  to  sustain  the  ex- 
pense of  these  schools,  to  ensure  their  permanent  sup- 
port. And  as  the  other  classes  of  schools,  which 
are  free,  are  annihilated  or  decline  in  their  character 
and  condition,  the  academies  will  be  encouraged  by 
those,  who  can  better  appreciate  the  advantages  of 
good  schools,  and  better  afford  the  necessary  expense. 
So  far  as  it  regards  the  accommodation  and  pecunia- 
ry interest  of  the  rich,  and  those  of  moderate  prop- 


47 

erty,  it  is  matter  of  indifference,  whether  the  legisla- 
ture or  publick  make  any  appropriations  or  provis- 
ions for  schools  or  not.  They  can  and  will  take 
care  for  themselves.  These  are  not  the  classes  of 
the  community  to  suffer,  when  government  withhold 
encouragement  from  the  schools.  It  is  the  poor, 
who  are  to  suffer.  They  must  educate  their  children 
in  free  schools,  and  in  their  own  neighborhood,  or  not 
educate  them  at  all.  The  expense  of  tuition,  of 
books,  atid  of  board  at  the  academies  are  so  appalling, 
as  to  put  the  advantages  of  those  schools  quite  be- 
yond the  power  of  a  vast  proportion  of  the  commu- 
nity. In  the  towns  where  academies  happen  to  be 
fixed,  the  poor  will  of  course  derive  some  increased 
advantages  ;  but  these  towns  are  so  few  compared 
with  the  whole,  and  the  incident  expenses  for  books 
and  tuition  are  so  considerable,  that  for  all  purposes 
of  directly  and  efficiently  educating  the  whole  mass 
of  the  people,  the  academies  may  be  left  out  of  cal- 
culation. For  not  one  in  twenty,  if  one  in  fifty, 
throughout  the  State,  will  ever  find  their  way  to  any 
of  them. 


48 


LETTER  IV. 

IF  there  is  any  one  cause  which  has  contributed 
more  than  others,  to  produce  that  remarkable  decree 
of  happiness  and  contentment,  which  pervade  all 
classes  of  the  people  in  New  England,  that  cause  is 
the  successful  operation  of  the  system  6T  Free 
Schools.  The  basis  of  the  system  is,  that  the  prop- 
erty of  all  without  distinction,  shall  be  applied  to  the 
education  of  all.  The  principle  and  its  operation 
were  thus  eloquently  described  by  Mr.  Webster,  in 
the  late  convention  for  revising  the  constitution  of 
Massachusetts.  "  For  the  purpose  of  publick  in- 
struction, we  hold  every  man  subject  to  taxation,  in 
proportion  to  his  property,  and  we  look  not  to  the 
question,  whether  he,  himself,  have,  or  have  not, 
children  to  be  benefitted  by  the  education,  for  which 
he  pays.  We  regard  it  as  a  wise  and  liberal  system 
of  police,  by  which  property,  and  life,  and  the  peace 
of  society  are  secured.  We  seek  to  prevent,  in  some 
measure,  the  extension  of  the  penal  code,  by  inspir- 
ing a  salutary  and  conservative  principle  of  virtue 
and  of  knowledge,  in  an  early  age.  We  hope  to 
excite  a  feeling  of  respectability,  and  a  sense  of 
character,  by  enlarging  the  capacity,  and  increasing 
the  sphere  of  intellectual  enjoyment.  By  general 
instruction,  we  seek,  as  far  as  possible,  to  purify  the 


49 

whole  moral  atmosphere ;  to  keep  good  sentiments 
uppermost,  and  to  turn  the  strong  current  of  feeling 
and  opinion,  as  well  as  the  censures  of  the  law,  and 
the  denunciations  of  religion,  against  immorality  and 
crime.  We  hope  for  a  security,  beyond  the  law,  and 
above  the  law,  in  the  prevalence  of  enlightened  and 
well  principled  moral  sentiment.  We  hope  to  con- 
tinue, and  to  prolong  the  time,  when,  in  the  villages 
and  farm  houses  of  New  England,  there  may  be  un- 
disturbed sleep,  within  unbarred  doors.  And  knowing 
that  our  government  rests  directly  on  the  publick 
will,  that  we  may  preserve  it,  we  endeavour  to  give 
a  safe  and  proper  direction  to  that  publick  will.  We 
do  not,  indeed,  expect  all  men  to  be  philosophers,  or 
statesmen ;  but  we  confidently  trust,  and  our  expec- 
tation of  the  duration  of  our  system  of  government 
rests  on  that  trust,  that  by  the  diffusion  of  general 
knowledge,  and  good  and  virtuous  sentiments,  the 
political  fabrick  may  be  secure,  as  well  against  open 
violence  and  overthrow,  as  against  the  slow  but  sure 
undermining  of  licentiousness. 

"  I  rejoice,  that  every  man  in  this  community  may 
call  all  property  his  own,  so  far  as  he  has  occasion 
for  it,  to  furnish  for  himself  and  his  children,  the 
blessings  of  religious  instruction  and  the  elements  of 
knowledge.  This  celestial,  and  this  earthly  light, 
he  is  entitled  to,  by  the  fundamental  laws.  It  is 
every  poor  man's  undoubted  birth-right,  it  is  the 
great  blessing,  which  this  constitution  has  secured  to 
him,  it  is  his  solace  in  life,  and  it  may  well  be  his 
7 


50 

consolation  in  death,  tli;it  his  count r\  stands  pledged, 
by  the  faith,  which  it  has  plighted  to  all  its  ciii/en^. 
to  protect  his  children  from  ignorance,  barbarism,  and 
vice." 

From  such  sentiments  as  these,  I  believe  there  an 
none  in  this  community,  who  would  wish  to  dissent. 
As  to  th<-  wi»dom  and  policy  of  making  some  pub- 
lick  provision  for  the  general  education  of  the  people, 
there  has  never  been  a  doubt.  But  in  regard  to  the 

o 

extent  of  these  appropriations,  there  now  exists  some 
divers'u\  of  opinion.  And  it  is  most  deeply  to  be 
regretted,  that  those  who  are  most  timid  and  >ecp- 
tical  as  to  the  great  utility  of  such  appropriations, 
seem  to  be  increasing.  At  least  we  are  left  to  inter 
this  from  the  policy,  which  has  been  lately  adopted, 
in  regard  to  the  schools  and  other  seminaries  of 
learning.  Economy  is  emphatically  the  order  of  the 
day.  This  is  well.  Economy  is  a  great  political 
virtue,  while  it  is  economy.  But  when  it  degener- 
ates into  parsimony,  and  leads  to  a  "  pence  calculat- 
ing policy,"  it  is  not  well.  While  the  puhlick  ap- 
propriations are  judiciously  expended,  there  is  little 
danger  of  being  liberal  to  a  fault,  in  the  means  of 
diffusing  knowledge.  And  it  \\  as  most  ardently  to 
have  been  hoped,  this  was  the  last  expenditure, 
where  a  retrechment  would  have  been  found  Mtafc 
sary.  There  is  certainly  no  expenditure,  from  which 
a  government,  especially  a  republican  government, 
realizes  so  full  and  ample  an  equivalent,  in  the  in- 
creased aggregate  of  happiness ;  and  none,  by  which 


51 

it  so  effectually  provides  for  its  own  prace  and  sta- 
bility. On  some  political  measures,  dillt  rent  classes 
of  the  same  community  have  conflicting  interests  to 
balance  and  adjust;  but  in  providing  liberally  for 
schools  as  well  as  higher  seminaries  of  learning,  the 
interest  of  all  classes  perfectly  coincides.  The  rich, 
upon  whom  the  principal  burden  of  all  publick  ap- 
propriations falls,  have  their  equivalent  in  the  im- 
proved condition  of  society,  and  the  increased  secu- 
rity of  their  property.  How  would  the  value  of 
property  be  impaired,  and  at  how  dear  a  rate  would 
the  rich  man  purchase,  or  save  a  few  dollars,  by  suf- 
fering an  ignorant  and  naturally  jealous  populace  to 
grow  up  around  him !  a  populace  equally  impatient 
of  the  influence  and  authority,  which  property  natu- 
rally confers,  and  rebellious  against  the  salutary  res- 
traints of  the  laws.  What  would  the  splendour  of 
wealth  contribute  to  happiness,  if  it  only  put  the 
lives  of  those  surrounded  by  it,  in  jeopardy,  by  plac- 
ing them  between  their  treasures  and  the  rapacity  of 
the  hungry,  the  destitute,  and  unprincipled.  It  is 
Hot  from  this  quarter,  that  we  either  expect  or  find 
opposition  to  liberal  expenditures  for  education. 

The  middling  and  poorer  classes  find  their  equiva- 
lent, in  having  their  families  educated  at  a  small  expense 
to  themselves.  For  these  classes  of  society  to  refuse 
ample  provisions  for  publick  instruction,  is  virtually  to 
refuse  to  have  their  children  educated  at  other's  ex- 
pense. Yet  it  is  here,  oftener  than  any  where,  we 
find  a  backwardness  and  indifference  upon  the  subject. 


52 

If  \ve  can  suppose  the  small  and  country  towns  to  have 
an  interest,  distinct  from  the  large  towns  ;  or  if  \\«: 
can  suppose  the  middling  and  poorer  classes  of  any 
given  town,  to  have  an  interest  distinct  from  the  rich 
of  the  same  town  ;  the  former  in  both  cases  stand 
with  their  back  to  the  light,  when  they  oppose,  as 
such,  public  appropriations  for  education.  tither 
they  do  not  clearly  understand  their  interest,  or 
they  completely  reverse  one  of  the  safest  principles 
to  be  assumed  in  all  political  reasoning.  In  the  case 
of  individuals,  there  may  be  some  honourable  excep- 
tions in  favour  of  human  nature  ;  but  with  classes  of 
men  and  nations,  in  order  to  foresee  how  they  will 
act  in  a  given  case,  we  have  only  to  learn,  u  hat  their 
own  interest  will  be.  Now,  in  regard  to  any  pecu- 
niary appropriation  for  a  publick  and  general  use,  it 
seems  as  plain  as  possible,  that  it  is  decidedly  for 
the  interest  of  the  small  towns  in  one  case,  and  of 
the  poorer  people  in  the  other,  to  advocate  a  large 
appropriation.  Take  for  illustration  the  example  of 
a  bequest  of  publick  money  to  the  University,  or 
any  public  seminary  of  learning,  for  educating  indi- 
gent scholars.  The  two  or  three  largest  and  most 
opulent  towns  in  the  Commonwealth  will  pay  one 
half  of  the  tax  necessary  to  raise  the  required  amount, 
and  will  probably  not  derive  one  tenth  of  the  advan- 
tage of  it.  So  the  small  and  country  towns  by  pay- 
Jng  one  half  of  the  tax,  may  avail  themselves  of 
nine  tenths  of  the  advantage  accruing  from-  the 
whole.  I  do  not  pretend  to  great  accuracy,  but 


53 

wish  merely  to  illustrate  the  principle.  In  the  ap- 
propriations for  schools  in  the  towns,  that  class  of 
the  inhabitants,  who  are  to  be  the  greatest  gainers  at 
the  least  expense,  are  often  most  reluctant  at  the  ex- 
penditure. In  this  state  we  have  no  means  of  calcu- 
lating precisely  the  advantage,  in  a  pecuniary  point 
of  view7,  which  the  middling  and  poorer  classes  have 
in  publick  appropriations  for  schools ;  because  we 
have  no  returns  of  the  number  of  scholars,  who  at- 
tend the  common  schools  ;  or  of  the  number  sent  by 
the  most  opulent  class.  But  the  advantage  is  great. 
I  have  selected  a  few  towns,  which  are  fair  examples 
of  the  equal  distribution  of  property  in  the  country,  . 
and  inquired  particularly  into  the  operation  of  this 
principle.  And  I  find  that  on  an  average  about  one 
sixth,  or  at  most,  one  fifth  of  the  legal  voters  in 
town  affairs,  embracing  the  richest  men  in  the  towns, 
will  pay  half  the  tax.  And  this  same  class  of  men, 
who,  if  they  had  advantage  according  to  what  they 
pay,  would  be  entitled  to  send  half  the  scholars,  will 
not,  on  an  average,  send  more  than  one  sixth  of 
them,  and  probably  not  so  many.  I  cannot  pledge 
myself  for  great  accuracy  here,  but  I  am  sufficiently 
accurate  to  illustrate  the  operation  of  the  principle. 
Notwithstanding  the  burden  of  the  schools  comes 
principally  upon  the  rich,  they  are  the  strongest  ad- 
vocate for  their  support.  No  one  would  wish  the 
principle  changed.  "  Government  cannot  subject 
the  property  of  those,  who  have  estates,  to  a  burden, 
for  a  purpose  more  favorable  to  the  poor,  and  more 


54 

useful  to  the  whole  community.  This  is  il.rli\in»- 
fountain,  which  supplies  4he  ever-flowing,  ever-re- 
freshing, ever-fertilising  stream,  of  public  instruc- 
tion and  general  intelligence."'  These  are  the  ali- 
ments, which  nourish  and  sustain  free  government. 
If  they  arc  withheld,  the  body  politick  is  languid 
and  disordered  ;  if  they  arc  withheld  longer,  a  few 
convulsions  may  end  its  existence.  Many  an  ardent 
and  aspiring  mind  is  touched  at  a  vital  point,  w  hen 
the  means  of  education  arc  withheld  or  pei  \erted. 
Those  in  humble  life  arc  far  removed  from  public  ob- 
servation. But  if  they  could  be  heard,  they  would 
ask  with  an  eloquence,  which  would  touch  the  heart 
of  the  most  calculating  politician,  that  those  means 
of  instruction  may  not  be  farther  removed,  which  they 
have  so  long  enjoyed.  Their  prayers  would  make 
an  argument,  which  none  either  could  or  would  wish 
to  resist. 

Much,  however,  as  all  are  disposed  to  attribute  to 
the  free  schools,  and  zealously  as  some,  and  probably 
a  majority  of  the  community,  would  advocate  a  more 
liberal  provision  for  them,  it  is  very  far  from  certain, 
that  they  produce  all  the  good  of  which  they  are 
capable,  even  with  their  present  means.  Nay,  it  is 
certain,  they  do  not.  And  it  is  much  to  be  lament- 
ed, that  means  comparatively  ample,  and  afforded 
by  a  community  so  deeply  interested  in  their  appro- 
priation, should  be  misapplied,  or  fail  of  their  liap- 

*  Sec  Webster's  Speech  in   Convention,  on  a   Resolution    for 
baaing  the  Senate  on  population. 


55 

piest  effect.  The  sketch  thus  far  given,  relates 
iiirrely  to  the  provisions  of  government,  and  the  ex- 
irrnnl  organization  of  the  system.  And  here,  al- 
most all  notices  of  the  subject,  if  it  has  been  noticed 
at  all,  have  rested.  But,  the  internal  organization, 
including  the  government  and  instruction,  will  pre- 
sent quite  as  interesting  a  view  of  the  subject.  A 
few  remarks,  therefore,  upon  the  defects  of  the 
schools,  and  suggestions  for  improvement,  will  appro- 
priately follow. 

Two  principal  causes  have  operated  from  the  first 
establishment  of  the  free  schools,  to  impair  and  per- 
vert their  influence.  1  st,  Incompetent  instructors ; 
2d,  Bad  school  books.  It  is  not  a  little  surprising, 
that  a  public  so  deeply  impressed  with  the  impor- 
tance of  the  system  of  schools,  and  so  resolved  to 
carry  it  into  full  operation,  by  liberal  appropriations, 
should  stop  short  of  their  purpose,  and  stop  precise- 
ly at  that  point,  where  the  greatest  attention  and  vig- 
ilance were  essential,  to  give  efficacy  to  the  whole. 
I  do  not  mean  that  much  good  has  not  been  realized  ; 
on  the  contrary,  as  has  been  repeatedly  remarked, 
the  success  of  the  free  school  system  is  just  cause 
of  congratulation  ;  but  I  mean,  that  their  influence 
has  not  been  the  greatest  and  the  best,  which  the 
same  means,  under  better  management,  might  pro- 
duce. 

I.  The  employment  of  incompetent  and  inexperi- 
enced instructers  has  probably  arisen  more  from  the 
peculiar  situation  of  the  country,  than  from  any  neg- 


56 

ligcnce  or  indifference  on.  the  subject.  So  many  op- 
portunities are  open  for  industrious  enterprise,  that  it 
has  always  been  difficult  to  induce  men  to  become 
permanent  teachers.  This  evil,  although  a  serious 
one,  is  one,  which  cannot  at  present  be  removed ; 
but  its  bad  effects  may  be  more  qualified,  by  raising 
the  character  and  acquirements  of  instructers  to  a 
higher  standard.  The  whole  business  of  instruction, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  has  hitherto  been  perform- 
ed by  those,  who  have  felt  little  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, beyond  the  immediate  pecuniary  compensation 
stipulated  for  their  services.  And  even  that  has 
been  too  inconsiderable,  to  render  a  want  of  success 
in  the  employment,  a  subject  of  much  regret.  This 
remark  applies  to  almost  all  instructers  from  the  pri- 
mary schools  up  to  the  higher  schools  ;  and  it  has  no 
very  remote  bearing  even  upon  some  of  the  instructers 
in  our  colleges.  Three  classes  of  men  have  furnished 
the  whole  body  of  instructers.  1st.  Those  have  un- 
dertaken to  teach,  who  had  no  better  reason  for  it, 
than  that  the  employment  is  easier,  and  perhaps  a 
little  more  profitable,  than  labour.  No  doubt  many 
excellent  instructers  belong  to  this  dass.  A  college 
education  is  by  no  means  essential  to  a  good  teacher 
of  a  primary  school.  But  it  must  be  confessed,  that 
many  of  this  class  have  been  most  lamentably  defi- 
cient in  those  literary  qualifications,  which  are  es- 
sential to  any  instructor  ;  and  perhaps,  still  more  de- 
ficient in  their  notions  of  decency  and  propriety, 
which  never  approach  to  refinement  in  manners.  In 


57 

the  same  degree,  the  schools  may  be  made  a  most 
efficient  instrument  for  improving  and  elevating  the 
state  of  society  when  under  the  direction  of  men, 
who  have  themselves  been  properly  taught,  they  may 
be  the  means- of  disseminating  or  perpetuating  gross- 
ness  in  manners,  and  vulgarity,  when  under  the  di- 
rection of  different  characters. 

2.  A  second  class  are  those,  who  are  acquiring,  or 
have  attained  a  publick  education  ;  and  who  assume 
the  business  of  instruction  as  a  temporary  employ- 
ment, either  to  afford  a  pecuniary  emolument  for  the 
relief  of  immediate  necessities,  or  to  give  themselves 
time  to  deliberate  and  choose  some  more  agreeable 
and  profitable  profession.  This  is,  probably,  the 
most  useful  class  of  instructers  ;  although  their  use- 
fulness is  much  impaired  by  ^a  want  of  experience 
and  engagedness  in  the  business.  The  thought  that 
the  employment  is  temporary,  and  that  their  ulti- 
mate success  in  life  is  not  much  affected  by  their 
success  as  teachers,  cannot  fail  to  weaken  the  mo- 
tives to  exertion,  and  discourage  the  sacrifices  neces- 
sary to  the  successful  teacher.  The  duties  of  the 
instructor  are  so  arduous,  under  the  most  favourable 
circumstances,  that  he  needs  all  the  motives  to  per- 
severance, which  exclusive  devotion  to  the  business, 
or  self-interest  can  suggest.  His  prospects  of  hap- 
piness, and  respectability  in  life,  therefore,  should  be 
more  identified  with  his  success  as  a  teacher. 

3.  The  third  class  is  composed  of  those,  who 
from  conscious  weakness,  despair  of  success  in  any 


58 

other  profession,  or  who  have  been  more  thoroughly 
convinced  by  unfortunate  experiment,  that  tlu-v  can- 
not attain  distinction,  perhaps  even  subsistence,  by 
any  other  means.  There  may  no  doubt  be  found 
individuals  among  this  class,  who  are  respectable  and 
useful  instructers.  But  as  a  class,  they  are  the 
most  exceptionable  of  the  three.  To  develope  the 
powers  of  the  human  mind,  in  the  most  success- 
ful manner,  requires  a  discrimination  and  judg- 
ment, which,  it  seldom  falls  to  the  lot  of  men  of  in- 
different talents,  to  possess.  In  the  science  of  in- 
struction, there  is  full  scope  for  the  best  talents,  and 
the  largest  acquirements.  All  the  elevated  quali- 
ties, either  of  mind  or  heart,  which  are  necessary  to 
ensure  success  in  any  of  the  professions,  are  essen- 
tial to  the  accomplished  instructer.  And  some  qual- 
ities are  required,  which  are  not  so  important  in  any 
other  profession.  How  can  he  hope  to  arrange  and 
adapt  the  studies  of  a  child,  so  as  to  call  forth  and 
strengthen  the  different  powers  of  the  mind,  in  their 
natural  order,  and  in  the  most  successful  manner, 
who  is  not  capable  of  enumerating  those  powers  ; 
much  less  of  analyzing  them  and  understanding  their 
mutual  relations  and  dependencies.  Such,  however, 
is  the  present  condition  of  our  country,  so  numerous 
are  the  demands  for  instructers  in  the  primary  and 
higher  schools,  and  so  various  are  the  private  inter- 
ests, which  will  be  felt  in  the  selection  of  them,  that 
it  is,  probably,  too  much  to  expect  all  to  have  the 
discrimination  necessary,  in  order  to  become  accurate 


59 

and  original  observers  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
youthful  mind.  But  we  have  much  to  hope  from 
those,  who  can  better  appreciate  the  importance  of  a 
correct  system  from  instruction,— from  the  encourage- 
ment of  individuals, — and  the  patronage  of  those 
large  towns,  which  carry  education  to  its  greatest 
perfection.  It  is  to  these  sources,  we  must  look  for 
the  first  examples  in  improvement. 

There  is  no  science,  which  is  so  difficult  to  be  re- 
duced to  general  principles,  as  that  of  education, — 
none  where  the  faithful  and  patient  induction  of 
large  experience,  is  so  essential.  Although  there  un- 
doubtedly are  some  general  rules,  to  which  the  inex- 
perienced instructer  may  be  referred  for  direction, 
yet  these  are  much  fewer  than  is  generally  imagined. 
Every  mind,  especially  in  its  early  development, 
presents  exceptions  and  qualifications  to  almost  eve- 
ry general  rule,  which  can  be  adopted.  So  various 
and  multiform  are  the  phenomena  of  the  youthful 
mind,  so  intimate  the  connexion,  and  so  strong  the 
mutual  influence,  of  the  powers  of  the  mind,  and 
the  affections  of  the  heart,  and  so  fleeting  and  evan- 
escent is  the  nature  of  the  evidence,  by  which  all 
these  must  be  detected  and  classified,  that  he  must 
be  skilful,  indeed,  who  presumes  to  offer  any  thing 
like  a  complete  analysis.  This  is  not  now  to  be  at- 
tempted. But  from  this  view  of  the  subject,  it 
would  seem,  the  skill  of  the  instructer  is  evinced, 
much  more  in  his  ability  to  detect  minute  differences, 
to  call  forth  those  tender  and  feeble  powers,  the 


60 

evidence  of  which  i*-  so  faint,  as  to  admit  a  doubt  of 
tlirir  \rrv  existence,  than  in  his  force  to  drive  on  the 
"system  of  tilings,"  which  has  been  rMablished  for 
ages.  It  is  as  preposterous  to  reduce  tin-  inl'mii- 
variety  of  youn<i  minds  to  precisely  the  same  dis<  i 
pliue,  calculating  UJHHI  tin-  sunc  result,  as  it  uonld 
be,  to  hope  to  make  all  men  look  alike  by  law  ;  and 
it  is  as  cruel  as  it  would  be  to  break  their  bodies,  at 
once,  to  the  bed  of  Procrustes.  "  It  is  one  tiling  to 
learn,  aud  another  to  teach.  It  is  very  possible  to 
possess  vast  stores  of  knowledge,  and  not  be  able  to 
impart  them,  even  to  the  willing  and  anxious  pupil. 
To  fix  the  volatile,  to  stimulate  the  sluggish,  and 
overcome  the  obstinate,  demand  an  acquaintance 
with  the  human  mind  not  quite  innate,  nor  likely  to 
be  acquired  without  some  experience." 

II.  The  success  of  our  schools  depends  as  much 
on  the  principles,*  by  which  thy  are  governed,  and 
the  school  books,  as  on  the  personal  -and  literary 
qualifications  of  the  instructor.  This  is  the  sphere 
for  useful  exertion,  and  the  source,  to  which  we  may 
look,  for  the  greatest  improvements.  The  succeed- 
ing remarks,  however,  are  exclusively  confined  to  the 
subject  of  School  Books,  and  the  general  principles 
of  communicating  knowledge,  or  the  Science  of  In- 
struction. 

*  The  classification, — arrangement  of  studies, — and  principles 
of  government  best  adapted  to  the  schools,  and  upon  which  so 
much  of  their  success  depends,  form  interesting  and  important 
subjects  of  discussion,  on  which  I  would  gladly  enter,  but  am 
obliged,  r.t  present,  to  relinquish  the  design. 


61 

Defects  in  the  state  of  school  and  text  books,  are 
less  likely  to  be  felt,  because  we  have  all  been  in- 
structed from  them,  and  our  minds  are  formed  upon 
them,  as  upon  certain  models.  Reformation  is  on 
all  subjects  progressive.  Even  reformers  themselves 
cannot,  at  once,  shake  off  the  many  associations, 
which  obscure  their  judgment.  And  reformation,  or 
rather  improvements  in  the  principles  of  instruction, 
are  more  slow  and  difficult  to  be  made,  than  in  those 
of  almost  any  other  subject.  This  is  partly  because 
the  subject  is  one  of  intrinsick  difficulty ;  but  more 
because  so  many  prejudices  are  to  be  encountered. 
Our  prejudices,  however,  on  this  subject  are  all  hon- 
est, for  they  are  wrought  into  our  very  nature,  from 
our  earliest  infancy  ;  and  they  are  the  stronger,  pre- 
cisely, because  all  acknowledge  the  subject  to  be  of 
the  utmost  importance,  and  take  particular  care,  that 
all  should  be  taught  according  to  the  most  approved 
and  philosophical  plan ;  that  is,  just  as  we  our- 
selves have  been  taught.  Every  age  and  generation 
think,  that  they  have  just  arrived  at  perfection.  And 
they  take  care  accordingly,  that  their  children  shall 
never  relapse  to  the  ignorance  of  their  ancestors. 
This  would  be  well,  if  they  did  not  take  almost  as 
effectual  care,  that  they  should  never  be  wiser  than 
their  fathers.  But  this  is  provided  against  with 
most  pious  care.  The  very  best  men  of  all  ages, 
those,  who  can  hardly  find  good  enough  to  do,  in 
this  short  life,  to  satisfy  themselves,  would,  with  ve- 
ry few  exceptions,  be  heartily  glad  to  freeze  or  pet- 


fi* 

rify  the  world,  in  the  perfect  and  consistent  form,  in 
which  they  are  about  to  leave  it,  lest  a  rash  and 
u  irked  posterity  should  jostle  it  out  of  shape. 

As  the  principles  of  religion,  and  the  principles  of 
instruction  arc  more  important  than  others ;  so  they 
are  proportionally  well  guarded  against  all  innovation, 
even  if  it  should  be  an  improvement.  Kvery  change- 
therefore,  in  either  of  these  subjects,  e>|>rri;ill\ , 
when  fundamental  principles  are  called  in  question, 
must  force  its  way  against  fearful  odds.  It  must 
encounter  all  the  deep  and  iirm  prejudices  of 
early  education, — all  the  authority  and  personal  in- 
fluence of  our  teachers, — and  the  almost  o\er\\  helm- 
ing influence  of  the  oldest  institutions  in  the  world.* 
Still  every  age  does  make  some  improvement  upon 
the  one  before  it.  And  though  we  may  be  insensi- 
ble of  the  progressive  motion,  at  short  intervals  ;  yet, 
at  the  end  of  a  hundred  years,  we  have  left  our  land 
marks  far  behind. 

But  besides  these  general  and  honest  prejudices, 
which  no  one  believes  he  possesses,  yet  all  do  pos- 
sess ;  there  are  others,  in  the  particular  case  in  hand, 
which  are  not  entitled  to  so  much  respect.  In  the 
case  of  school  books,  there  are  prejudices  of  igno- 
rance and  interest  to  be  encountered.  The  mass  of 

•The  venerable  English  Universities,  "Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, in  the  fine  metaphor  of  Dugald  Stuart,  are  immovably 
moored  to  the  same  station  by  the  length  of  their  cables,  thereby 
enabling  the  historian  of  the  human  mind,  to  measure  the  rapidi- 
ty of  the  current,  by  which  the  rest  of  the  world  are  borne 
along."  [lugersoll's  Discourse.] 


63 

instructors  in  the  primary  schools,  who  have  most  in- 
fluence in  thq  selection  of  school  books,  had  com- 
monly much  rather  teach  an  old  book,  which  they 
themselves  have  been  taught,  than  be  at  the  trouble 
of  learning  a  new  one.  Indeed,  so  superficial  has 
the  education  of  most  instructors  of  common  schools 
been,  that  a  new  book  is  to  them,  a  new  subject. 
The  particular  4brm  and  words,  in  which  the  princi- 
ples of  any  branch  of  learning  have  been  expressed, 
and  the  principles  themselves,  are  v-ith  them,  identi- 
cal ;  and  if  the  words  are  varied,  the  principles  are 
not  recognised. 

Could  they  be  divested  of  all  the  prejudices,  they 
imbibe  from  early  education,  it  is  believed  the  re- 
pugnance of  the  method,  upon  which  school  books 
are  written,  to  the  acknowledged  principles  and  laws 
of  the  human  mind,  would  be  at  once  felt.  Indeed, 
the  whole  range  of  text  books  for  elementary  in- 
struction, is  liable  to  the  same  remark.  Since  the 
inductive  method  of  Lord  Bacon,  the  sciences  have 
undergone,  and  are  still  undergoing,  an  essential 
change.  The  object  of  pursuit,  by  the  new  system 
of  logick,  is  more  steadily  kept  in  view,  and  facili- 
ties are  added  to  the  means  of  pursuit.  Discoveries 
have,  consequently,  been  made,  which  have  quite 
transformed  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences.  The 
identity  of  some  principles,  which  had  been  before 
considered  different,  has  been  established  ;  and  oth- 
ers have  been  separated,  which  had  before  been  iden- 
tical. Order  has  taken  the  place  of  confusion  in  all 


64 

the  sciences.  Chymistry  has  declared  independence 
of  Natural  Philosophy,  and  assumed  the  diiiniiy  of 
a  separate  science.  Political  Economy  has  been 
added  to  the  sisterhood,  and,  like  all  young  children, 
bids  fair  to  be  the  prt  of  the  family. 

Is  it  not  astonishing,  that,  uhile  all  acknowledge 
the  importance  of  the  new  method  of  interpreting 
nature,  and  adopt  it  in  all  their  own-  pursuits,  none 
yet  seem  to  feel,  that  the  same  principles  are  equally 
applicable  to  communicating  the  sciences  to  others, 
or  the  science  of  instruction  ?  The  grand  principles 
of  instruction  are  much  the  same,  they  were  before 
the  time  of  Bacon ;  but  the  philosophy  of  Mind  as 
well  as  Matter,  have  assumed  another  form.  The 
elementary  principles  of  the  human  mind  are  the 
same  at  six,  at  sixteen,  and  sixty.  They  exist  in 
different  degrees  of  strength  and  improvement  at  dif- 
ferent periods,  and  they  change  their  relative  weight, 
as  elements  of  a  character ;  but  no  new  powrer  is 
created,  precisely  at  the  time,  the  learner  throws  off 
the  thraldom  of  a  system  of  discipline,  calculated  to 
impede,  rather  than  develop  the  mind,  and  pursues 
truth  in  the  most  direct  and  natural  way.  Yet 
this  would  seem  to  be  the  inference  from  the  fact, 
that  a  method  of  communicating  knowledge  is  retained, 
which  is  acknowledged  to  be  different,  and  if  exam- 
ined, will  be  found  to  be  repugnant,  to  the  method, 
the  mind  pursues,  when  left  to  make  its  own  ac- 
quirements. All,  who  have  attended  in  the  least  to 
an  analysis  of  their  own  minds,  at  the  different 


65 

stages  in  the  progress  of  their  development,  must 
be  conscious  of  having  to  unlearn,  if  it  may  be  so 
called,  most  of  the  acquirements  of  youth.  That  is, 
they  must  break  up  the  arrangement  and  classifica- 
tion of  their  knowledge,  which  have  been  made  up- 
on a  method  repugnant  to  the  principles  of  the  mind  ; 
and  make  a  new  classification  upon  the  correct  prin- 
ciple. This,  all  must  do,  whether  they  are  con- 
scious of  it  or  not,  who  are  destined* to  make  much 
progress  in  knowledge.  Although  this  is  not  so 
difficult  a  process,  as  might,  at  first,  be  imagined  ; 
yet,  the  powers  of  the  mind  must  be  somewhat  par- 
alyzed in  their  development,  and  checked  in  the 
acquirement  of  knowledge,  by  the  change  of  impor- 
tant principles,  in  the  method  of  acquirement.  The 
advantage  of  taking  the  correct  and  philosophical 
method  at  the  earliest  age,  and  pursuing  it  without 
interruption  or  change,  can  hardly  be  estimated. 
This  is  an  achievement,  which  remains  yet  to  be 
made  ;  and  it  is  one,  whose  influence  on  the  sciences, 
and  the  condition  of  mankind,  cannot  be  distinctly 
foreseen. 

The  triumph  of  the  inductive  logick,  although  it 
is  a  cause,  which  has  more  changed  the  state  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  and  consequently  the  whole  face 
of  the  world,  than  any  other,  which  has  operated 
within  the  reach  of  history,  is  but  half  complete, 
till  it  is  carried  into  the  subject  of  education.  The 
principles  of  the  inductive  philosophy  should  be  as 
rigorously  followed  in  education,  as  any  other  de- 
9 


G* 

of  human  knowledge.     The  school  books, 
and  we  may  add  the  text  books  of  the  colleges,   arc 
certainly   not  written  upon   the    inductive   method. 
And  these  arc  our  instructers,  or  the  models,  on  which 
our  instructers  form  us.     The  lxx>ks  to  be  sure    h;nc 
been  written  over  and  over  again,  in  order   to   keep 
pace   with,   and  incorporate   the   iinjumcments   and 
discoveries  in   the  diflcn-nt   sciences,  of  which   they 
treat.     This   is  well,  and  as  it  should  be.     But  the 
essential  principle,  on  which  they  are  written,  is  the 
same  through  all  changes.     This  is  wrong,  and  what 
should  be  corrected.     Improvements  in  arrangement, 
and  in  the  manner  of  expressing  the  principles  of 
the  sciences,  have,  no  doubt,  been   frequently  made. 
Indeed,  the  books  have  probably  been   carried  to  as 
great  perfection,  as  they  can    be   carried,    without 
some  more   essential   change    in   the   principles,  on 
which  they  have  been  written.     They  are  very  well 
executed,  upon  a  very  bad  plan.     The   reason  to  bo 
assigned  for   such  slow  progress  in  the  improvements 
of  school  books,  in  particular,  is  a   mistaken  notion 
of  the  purpose  of  a  school  book  ;  and  the  fact,  thai 
there  have  seldom  been  brought  to   the  task  of  ele- 
mentary instruction,  talents  capable   of  comprehend- 
ing, at  once,  the  principles  of  a  science,  in  their  re- 
lation and  dependance  upon  each  other ;  and  still  less 
capable  of  analyzing  the  powers  of  the  young  mind, 
to  which  the  science   is   to  be  adapted.     The  books 
for   elementary    instruction,    have   been    written    or 
compiled,  with  a  view  to  set  forth   the  principles  of 


6? 

the  science,  of  which  it  treats,  in  a  manner  the  most 
philosophical  to  those  who  make  the  books,  but  with 
little  or  no  reference  to  the  young  minds,  which  are 
to  encounter   them.     The   object  of  the   education, 
which  can  be  given  in  the  schools  of  this  country,  or 
even  the  colleges,  is  not  so  much  to  give  knowledge, 
as  to  develop  the  powers  of  the  mind,  and  strength- 
en them  for  the  acquirement  of  knowledge,  at  some 
future  period.     Every  thing,    therefore,   even   philo- 
sophical accuracy,    if  it  is  necessary,  must  be   sacri- 
ficed to  the  single  object  of  adaptation  to  the  mind. 
It  is. of  little  consequence,  what  the  study  is,  which 
the  child  or   youth  is  put  upon,  if  it  be  so  managed, 
as  to  bring  forward  all  the  powers   of  the    mind,  in 
their  proper  and  natural  order.     And  -when  the  mind 
has  acquired  some  strength  by  discipline,   and  a  just 
balance  among  all  its  faculties,  its  attention  may  then 
be  turned 'towards  the  acquirement  of  useful   knowl- 
edge, with  a  good  hope  of  success.     But  impatient 
parents  have  estimated  instructors,  by    their   ability 
to  give  a  smattering  of  learning   in  some  branch  of 
knowledge,,  rather  than  their  ability   to  watch  over 
and  detect  all  wrong  associations ;    and   to  preserve 
the  balance    essential    to   a  well   disciplined   mind, 
by  encouraging    or  repressing  different   faculties  as 
the  particular  case  may  require.     Perfection  of  edu- 
cation consists  more  in  the  harmony  and  jusl^ropor- 
tion  of  all  the  powers  of  the  mind,  than  in  the  over- 
grown strength  of  any  one.     When   the   plan  of  a 
school  book,  or  the  arrangement  of  studies  generally, 


is  such  as  to  exorcise  but  few  or  one  power,  this 
takes  the  lead.  It  monopolizes  an  undue  share  of 
energy,  and  becomes  overgrown  at  the  expense  of 
some,  or  all  of  the  other  powers.  The  features  of 
the  mind  become  distorted,  and  unless  the  deformity 
is  corrected  by  the  judicious  instructer,  the  effect 
will  become  permanent,  and  extend  to  the  whole 
character. 


LETTER  V. 

• 

IF  Socrates  was  said  to  have  brought  philosophy 
from  heaven,  Bacon  may  as  truly  be  said  to  have  in- 
fused it  into  men.  The  generations,  that  have  lived 
between  that  prodigy  of  human  intellect  and  our- 
selves, have  acknowledged  their  obligations  to  him, 
and  no  doubt  profited  much  by  his  instructions. 
But,  it  is  apprehended,  his  philosophy  is  not  yet 
brought  down  to  our  comprehension,  and  carried 
thoroughly  and  effectually  into  all  our  intellectual 
exertions.  It  is  said,  he  felt  that  he  belonged  to  a 
later  age,  than  that,  in  which  he  lived  ;  and  in  anti- 
cipation of  his  increasing  fame,  "  bequeathed  his 


69 

name  to  posterity,  after  some  generations  shall  be 
passed."*  Perhaps  this  generation  is  the  intended 
heir  ;  and  it  is  high  time,  they  had  put  in  their  claim 
to  enjoy  the  inheritance. 

There  are  no  means,  by  which  we  may  derive 
more  advantage  from  his  philosophy,  and  consequent- 
ly render  more  honour  to  his  name,  than  by  applying 
it  to  the  subject  of  education,  or  the  science  of  in- 
struction. The  applicability  of  his  philosophy  to 
this  subject,  has  been,  long  since,  acknowledged  by 
high  authority.  And  the  distance  between  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  principle,  and  the  application 
of  it,  has  not  been  greater,  than  was  to  be  expected  ; 
especially,  when  we  consider,  that  the  application 
depended  upon  judgments  warped  by  all  the  preju- 
dices or  "  Idols"  of  the  mind,  formed  under  the 
reign  of  a  different  philosophy. 

Mr.  Stewart,  sketching  a  system"  of  logick,  ob- 
serves :  "  Another  very  important  branch  of  a  ra- 
tional system  of  logick,  ought  to  be,  to  lay  down 
the  rules  of  investigation,  which  it  is  proper  to  fol- 
low in  the  different  sciences."  And  when,  farther 
on,  he  tells  us  how  to  lay  down  such  rules  of  inves- 
tigation, he  says  :  "  Such  is  the  incapacity  of  most 
people  for  abstract  reasoning,  that  I  am  inclined  to 
think,  even  if  the  rules  of  inquiry  were  delivered  in 
a  perfectly  complete,  and  unexceptionable  form,  it 
might  still  be  expedient  to  teach  them  to  a  majority 

*  Stewart's  Dissertation  on  the  History  of  Philosophy.  Part 
i.  p.  94. 


;o 

of  students,  rather  by  exam/>/<  s,  thnn  in  the  form  of 
general  principles."        llo\v   far   Mr.    Siewart    \\;i> 
alilr  to  oxercome  the  '  Idols'  of  his    own   mind,    and 
keep  himself  consistent  with    the  principle  above  laid 
down,  his  book  must  decide. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  rules  of 
inquiry,  by  which  we  are  to  proceed  to  the  study  of 
a  science,  and  the  principles  of  that  science,  after 
we  have  already  be^un  to  make  acquisitions  in  it. 
But  if  the  former  should  be  taught  by  examples,  the. 
reasons  are  much  stronger,  why  the  latter  should. 
It  would  be  much  easier  to  understand  by  a  maxim, 
in  what  direction  the  science  lays  ;  than  it  would  be 
to  understand  by  the  same  means,  all  the  particulars 
or  facts  of  that  science,  when  the  inquirer  has  arriv- 
ed upon  the  ground.  The  mind  does  not  perceive  a 
general  inrth,  till  it  has  perceived  the  parlirulm 
truths,  from  which  it  has  been  derived.  If  any 
thing  more  than  our  own  experience  were  necessary 
to  settle  this  point,  passages  might  be  selected  from 
various  authors,  to  add  the  weight  of  their  authority . 
But  it  is  not  the  custom  to  question  this  position  ; 
and  it  is  quite  as  little  the  custom  to  pay  any  atten- 
tion to  it.  It  is  to  this  point,  attention  i>  now  invit- 
ed ;  in  the  hope  it  ma\  have,  not  only  a  specula- 
tive belief,  but  a  practical  influence  upon  our  princi- 
ples, and  systems  of  instruction. 

l>ut  this  is  dealing  too  much    in  generals  ;  or  fall- 
ini;  precisely  into  the  error  to  be  controverted.     To 

*  Philosophy  of  the  Huraau  Mind,    lutrod.   Part  2d.  Sec.  2d. 


71 

be  consistent,  a  particular  example  must  he  taken,  to 
illustrate  what  is  meant  hy  inductive  instruction.  I 
must  even  be  so  consistent,  as  not  to  give  a  defini- 
tion. For  unless  our  experience  upon  the  particular 
subject  has  been  altogether  similar,  there  would  be 
great  danger  of  being  misunderstood,  or  not  under- 
stood at  all ;  till  an  example  explained  the  meaning, 
and  then  a  definition  would  be  unnecessary.  After 
a  few  examples  of  the  application  of  the  principle, 
it  will  be  easy  for  any  one  to  make  a  correct  defini- 
tion for  himself. 

In  selecting  the  example  of  languages,  I  shall 
probably  meet  more  objections,  and  encounter  more 
skepticks,  than  in  any  other  example,  which  could 
be  taken.  But  principles  are  always  best  tested  by 
extreme  cases.  And  there  is  no  necessity  for  avail- 
ing myself  of  the  advantage  of  the  happiest  applica- 
tion I  could  select. 

• 

In  our  most  approved  schools,  the  method  of 
teaching  languages  has  been,  to  put  into  the  hand  of 
the  pupil  a  grammar  of  the  language  to  be  taught ; 
and  require  him  to  learn,  as  it  is  improperly  called,  the 
general  principles  of  the  language.  This  is  done  com- 
monly at  the  expense  of  from  three  to  six  or  twelve 
months'  time,  and  a  thorough  disgust  to  the  whole 
subject.  This  disgust  very  naturally  arises  from  be- 
ing kept  so  long,  on  what  he  does  not  in  the  least 
understand.*  At  the  end  of  this  time,  if  the  teacher 

*  To  counteract  in  some  degree,  this  baneful  effect,  artificial 
stimulants  are  applied.  And  these  are  increased  to  so  intense  a 
degree,  as  to  produce  a  perfect  phrenzy  in  the  pupil,  to  seem  to 


72 

has  been  inflexible  in  his  purpose,  and  the  pupil  not 
unreasonably  stupid,  he  will  have  committed  to  mem- 
ory his  grammar  from  end  to  end,  including  all  rules 
and  all  exceptions ;  to  which  he  probably  attaches 
equal  importance.  He  may  have  fixed  perfectly  in 
his  memory,  all  the  subtle  refinements  of  all  the  phi- 
losophers, who  have  spent  their  lives  in  studying  the 
principles  and  anomalies  of  the  language ;  but  he 
has  made  but  a  small  approximation  to  a  knowledge 
of  it.  This  is  studying  the  philosophy  of  the  lan- 
guage before  the  pupil  is  acquainted  with  the  facts 
of  it. 

This  system  of  teaching  proceeds  upon  the  suppo- 
sition, that  the  language  was  invented  and  formed 
by  the  rules  of  grammar.  Nothing  is  more  false. 
A  grammar  can  never  be  written  till  a  good  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  is  attained ;  and  then,  contrary 
to  what  the  pupil  supposes,  the  grammar  is  made  to 
suit  the  language.  Now  why  invert  this  natural 
method  in  teaching  language  to  young  learners? 

have  learned  all,  that  could  be  expected  from  him.  Under  the 
strong  excitement  of  hope  or  fear,  the  young  learner  will  spare 
no  pains  to  accomplish  his  task.  But  it  must  be  remembered, 
that  under  the  influence  of  these  motives,  the  object  is  only  to 
convince  the  instructor  the  task  is  accomplished.  And  often- 
times the  craftiness  of  the  pupil  will  invent  some  more  expedi- 
tious method  for  this  purpose,  than  really  to  possess  himself  of 
the  knowledge  he  is  expected  to  gain.  These  short  cuts  to  the 
approbation  of  the  instructer,  it  is  feared,  are  not  always  con- 
sistent with  that  ingenuousness,  which  it  is  so  desirable  to  culti- 
vate in  the  youthful  heart. 


73 

Must  not  the  facts  be  learned,  before  they  can  be 
classed  under  general  principles  ?  What  are  the 
rules  and  principles,  which  the  pupil  has  learned  at 
so  dear  a  rate  ?  They  are  no  more  than  the  verbal 
generalisation  of  facts.  How  have  they  themselves 
been  formed  ?  By  the  experience  of  those  whose 
attention  has  been  directed  to  the  observation  of  the 
facts.  They  are  abstract  principles,  the  truth  of 
which  can  neither  be  perceived,  understood,  nor  be- 
lieved, till  some  single  instance,  within  the  compre- 
hension of  the  principle  or  rule,  presents  itself  to  the 
learner.  And  then  he  will  perceive  the  fact  in  the 
particular  case,  long  before  he  discovers  its  identity 
with  the  rule,  if  he  is  ever  so  fortunate  as  to  dis- 
cover it. 

In  learning  the  peculiarities  of  a  language,  which 
is  but  imperfectly  known,  the  philosopher  does  not 
(although  he  might  to  much  better  advantage  than 
a  young  learner)  go  to  the  grammar  of  that  language  ; 
he  selects  the  best  authors  and  makes  a  careful  analy- 
sis of  their  sentences ;  and  thus,  discovers,  what 
constructions  are  common  with  other  languages,  and 
what  are  peculiar  to  the  one  to  be  learned.  At  the 
end  of  his  researches,  he  forms  into  general  princi- 
ples, the  result  of  his  experience.  The  rule,  there- 
fore, is  obtained  by  a  patient  induction  of  particular 
instances,  and  is  put  in  words,  not  to  teach  us  any- 
thing, but  to  classify  what  has  already  been  learned, 
and  put  it  in  a  form  convenient  to  be  referred  to, 
as  occasion  requires.  As  we  assort  our  papers  by 
10 


74 

examination  of  each  particular  one,  and  put  togeth- 
er the  letters  of  correspondence,  the  promissory  notes, 
and  the  deeds  of  conveyance ;  and  then  put  on  each 
collection  a  label,  with  the  title  of  the  class,  as  a 
convenience  for  reference  only,  not  because  that  al- 
te,rs  the  nature  of  the  papers,  on  which  it  is  put. 

The  analogy  pursued  illustrates  my  meaning  far- 
ther. He,  who  has  committed  to  his  memory  all  the 
principles  of  a  language,  before  he  has  had  experi- 
ence of  the  particular  cases,  from  which  those  prin- 
ciples have  been  derived,  will  be  no  wiser  in  respect 
to  his  language,  than  he,  who  should  collect  the  la- 
bels of  his  papers,  and  take  this  for  a  knowledge  of 
their  nature.  The  abstract  principles  of  a  language 
give  .no  more  adequate  idea  of  the  particulars,  from 
which  they  have  been  formed,  than  the  labels  give  of 
the  nature  and  obligation  of  a  note,  or  a  deed,  before 
those  papers  have  been  separately  and  individually 
examined. 

The  facts  of  a  language  must  be  first  learned,  and 
they  always  are  first  learned,  all  the  arrangements 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  The  rules  in  the 
learner's  memory  are  perfectly  useless,  till  he  has 
learned  the  particulars  or  facts  of  the  language ;  be- 
cause he  cannot  till  then  understand  them.  And 
when  the  pupil  is  learning  the  language  by  experience, 
he  will  make  rules  for  his  own  convenience,  precisely 
as  a  philosopher  does  f  and  always  make  them  as 
general  as  his  experience  will  allow.  As  he  makes 
farther  progress,  and  becomes  acquainted  with  more 


75 

of  the  minutiae  of  the  language,  he  will  extend  the 
comprehension  of  his  rules,  till  they  become  as  gen- 
eral as  the  nature  of  the  subject  admits.  Then  the 
exceptions  will  be  noticed  and  classed  under  the 
rules,  to  which  they  are  exceptions. 

Is  not  this  natural  and  philosophical ;  and  if  so, 
why  do  we  pursue  a  method  diametrically  opposite 
to  both  ?  What  then  is  the  business  of  the  instruct- 
er  ?  and  must  every  pupil  learn  the  language  under 
all  the  disadvantages,  which  we  should  encounter  in 
attempting  to  learn  a  dead  language,  without  gram- 
mar or  instructor  ?  The  business  of  the  instructer 
is,  to  lay  before  his  pupil  those  facts,  which  are  easi- 
est perceived.  Such  are  the  meaning  of  the  words, 
and  the  construction  of  the  simplest  sentences.  And 
as  a  knowledge  of  the  words  is  attained,  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  sentences  understood,  a  principle  of 
limited  comprehension  is  established  in  the  mind  of 
the  pupil,  and  sentences  of  more  difficult  construction 
are  put  in  his  way. 

The  duty  of  the  instructer  is  more  arduous  ;  be- 
cause he  must  know  by  observation,  precisely  how 
fast  his  pupil  generalises,  in  order  to  arrange  the 
difficulties  he  is  to  encounter.  The  duty  of  the 
learner  is  easier,  and  his  success  more  certain ;  be- 
cause rje  knows,  if  his  instructer  is  not  ignorant  or 
careless,  that  he  is  competent  to  solve,  of  himself, 
every  difficulty  which  occurs.  Whereas  when  he 
proceeds  to  sentences  and  books  at  random,  with 
grammar  and  dictionary  in  hand,  be  does  not  know, 


76 

when  he  encounters  a  hard  passage,  whether  it  is  ca- 
pable of  a  satisfactory  answer,  or  wlirthrr  it  is  a 
subject  of  debate  among  commentators.  This  doubt 
discourages  perseverance ;  whereas,  by  the  other 
method,  he  knows  he  can  succeed,  and  the  respon^i 
bility  is  his  own,  if  he  fails.  Greater  difficulties,  by 
far,  are  presented  to  the  learner,  in  attempting  to 
apply  a  principle  so  much  more  general,  than  his  ex- 
perience, than  would  occur  in  classifying  the  facts, 
only  as  fast  as  he  learns  them. 

If  this  principle  of  teaching  languages  is  under- 
stood, its  application  will  be  easy  for  instructers.  A 
perfect  development  of  the  principle  cannot  be  here 
given.  It  is  merely  suggested  for  consideration ; 
and  if  it  is  found  correct,  philosophical,  and  conso- 
nant to  the  laws  of  mind ;  the  detail  will  more 
properly  follow.  It  may  be  remarked,  however,  on 
leaving  the  topick,  that  there  are  several  methods  of 
communicating  the  elements  or  obvious  facts  of  a 
language,  without  even  the  sight  of  a  grammar. 
That  will  come  to  aid  in  classifying  the  facts  and 
knowledge  of  the  language ;  but  those  facts  and  that 
knowledge  must  be  attained,  before  they  can  be  clas- 
sified. The  instructor  may  construe  literally  a  few 
of  the  easiest  passages  or  simplest  sentences,  which 
can  be  selected,  and  the  learner  be  required  to  go 
over  the  same  sentences  by  himself,  till  he  has  learn- 
ed to  construe  them  without  assistance.  Or,  per- 
haps a  better  method  would  be  to  select  some  easy 
and  interesting  story,  perfectly  within  the  coaipre- 


77 

hension  of  the  pupil,  so  that  the  interest  of  the 
piece  may  aid  in  the  recollection  of  the  words. 
When  a  very  few  short  stories  of  this  kind  have 
been  learned  in  this  manner,  the  child  may  be  put 
to  construe  similar  pieces  alone,  to  the  instructer, 
who  will  serve  as  a  dictionary  for  the  words,  which 
have  not  occurred  before,  or  are  not  remembered. 
The  interest  of  the  piece  confines  the  attention,  and 
the  meaning  of  the  words  is  acquired  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity.  The  necessity  of  making  sense  of 
the  story,  will  oblige  the  pupil  directly  to  observe, 
that  as  different  terminations,  or  certain  particles  are 
used,  different  shades  of  meaning  are  expressed. 
And  he  will  form  his  experience  in  the  observation 
of  facts  into  rules,  as  fast  as  he  has  such  experience. 
Another  method  would  be  to  put  an  easy  book, 
with  a  perfectly  literal  translation,  into  the  hand  of 
the  learner,  and  require  him  to  learn  a  portion  to 
recite  without  the  translation.  This  gives  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  words,  the  first  thing  to  be  attained  in 
the  acquirement  of  a  language.  The  particles,  from 
their  frequent  occurrence,  will  be  soon  learned. 
And  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  known  to  the  pupil, 
the  meaning  of  them  may  be  left  out  of  the  translation. 
In  the  same  manner,  common  words  may  be  dropped 
from  the  translation,  care  being  taken  to  always  give 
the  meaning  of  a  new  word,  or  a  new  sense  of  the 
same  word,  till  it  can  be  fairly  supposed  to  be  learn- 
ed. In  this  manner  the  inflections  will  be  better 
understood  than  in  any  other  method.  For  the 


h  arut-r  sees,  at  once,  the  different  terminal  ion-,  and 
the  different  relations  of  the  words  expressed  by 
them. 

During  this  stage  with  the  pupil,  the  grammar  and 
dictionary  may  be  at  hand,  but  they  are  to  be  con- 
sulted as  a  means  of  learning  the  lesson,  and  not  to 
constitute  the  lesson  itself.  After  an  intimation 
from  the  instructer,  that  the  grammar  contains  infor- 
mation, which  may  be  useful  ;  and  perhaps  after  a 
reference  to  it,  by  way  of  example  to  the  pupil,  let 
him  consult  it  just  as  often  as  he  pleases,  and  no 
oftener.  If  he  does  not  find  any  aid  from  it  in 
learning  his  lesson  ;  or  feel  the  want  of  something 
of  the  kind,  it  will  be  of  but  little  use,  to  drive  him 
to  it.  But  instead  of  wearing  out  some  half  dozen 
grammars,  before  he  is  advanced  to  any  other  book, 
and  absolutely  loathing  the  sight  of  one,  it  will  be  the 
very  dearest  book  on  the  table.  He  will  find  all  the 
inflections  and  rules  laid  down  in  the  book  so  conso- 
nant with  his  own  experience  in  the  language,  that 
he  will  be  very  much  disposed  to  adopt  that  arrange- 
ment for  the  classification  of  his  own  knowledge. 

I  take  geography  as  another  example,  to  illustrate 
what  is  meant  by  inductive  instruction.  It  is  se- 
lected, not  because  it  affords  any  peculiar  advantage 
in  the  application  of  this  method  of  communicating 
knowledge  ;  but  because  it  offers  a  convenient  op- 
portunity to  remark  upon  the  leading  principles, 
upon  which  books  on  the  subject  have  been  written ; 
and  to  acknowledge  its  increasing  interest  and  irn- 


79 

portance  as  an  elementary  study.  Children  are  very 
early  capable  of  describing  the  places,  mountains, 
and  rivers,  which  pass  under  their  inspection.  And 
they  commonly  do  it  with  an  enthusiasm,  which 
shows,  how  lively  an  interest  they  take  in  the  sub- 
ject, and  how  deep  an  impression  the  peculiarities 
of  new  places  make  upon  them.  When  they  have 
learned,  by  actual  perception,  a  few  of  the  features 
of  the  face  of  the  earth  ;  at  a  period  a  little  later, 
they  are  capable  of  feeling  a  similar  interest  in  form- 
ing a  conception  of  places,  mountains,  rivers,  &c. 
from  representation  and  description.  Then  com- 
mences the  study  of  geography. 

This  is  a  branch  of  learning,  which  has  been 
more  neglected,  than  its  importance  deserves  ;  wheth- 
er we  consider  the  value  of  the  knowledge  obtained, 
or  whether  we  consider  the  adaptation  of  the  study, 
to  the  early  development  of  the  mind.  As  commerce 
and  letters  multiply  the  mutual  interests,  relations, 
and  dependencies  of  distant  places,  some  knowledge 
of  those  places  becomes  almost  indispensable  to  all 
professions  and  classes  of  society.  Till  within  a 
few  years,  there  has  been  but  little  order  or  arrange- 
ment in  the  books,  which  could  be  studied  as  text 
books.  Facts  and  descriptions  were  selected,  with 
no  very  great  care  or  attention  to  their  importance, 
and  with  less  if  possible  to  their  authenticity. 
These  materials  were  thrown  together  upon  some 
plan  adopted  from  the  caprice  of  the  author,  but  with 
not  the  least  reference  to  the  learner.  Consequently, 


80 

the  whole  subject  lias  been  almost  totally  neglected. 
So  much  depends  upon  the  manner,  in  which  knowl- 
edge is  presented  to  the  understanding  of  the  learner. 
But  within  these  few  years,  improvements  have 
been  made,  in  the  elementary  books  upon  this  sub- 
ject, which  have  brought  it  into  notice.  It  is  now 
very  generally,  though  I  am  far  from  believing  very 
successfully,  taught  in  our  schools. 

The  manner  of  teaching  it  by  question  and  an- 
swer, which  is  the  manner  adopted  by  the  books 
most  approved  at  present,  is  objectionable  ;  although 
it  enables  the  young  learner  to  seem  to  have  acquired 
great  knowledge  of  the  subject.  The  questions  di- 
rect the  learner  to  the  most  important  facts,  no 
doubt,  but  that  is  of  little  consequence  to  him,  so 
long  as  he  is  unable,  or  not  prepared  to  comprehend 
them.  He  connects  the  question  and  its  answer  by 
some  artificial  association,  and  will  repeat  a  passage, 
containing  important  information,  with  verbal  accu- 
racy. To  the  hearers,  who  have  already  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  who  attach  to  the 
words,  a  definite  and  correct  meaning,  the  child 
seems  to  possess  an  astonishing  fund  of  knowledge. 
But  it  is  apprehended,  that  many  a  child,  who  thus 
delights  and  astonishes  his  parents,  and  gains  bis 
book  and  instructer  great  renown,  would  make  as 
sorry  a  figure  on  a  more  careful  examination,  as  the 
child  mentioned  by  Miss  Hamilton.  After  answer- 
ing to  all  his  questions,  and  giving  an  accurate  ac- 
count of  the  statisticks  of  Turkey,  on  being  asked 


81 

where  Turkey  was,  a  question  not  in  the  book,  re- 
plied, "in  the  yard  with  the  poults." 

The  improvements  in  our  school  books,  upon  this 
subject,  have  consisted  in  greater  attention  and  accu- 
racy  in  the  collection   of  authentick   and   important 
facts,  and  in  a  more  consistent  arrangement  of  them. 
But  by  far  the   most  important   improvement  is  the 
introduction  of  maps.     The  principle  of  using  maps, 
deserves  the  most  unqualified  approbation.     For  when 
the  object  and  meaning  of  a  map  are  thoroughly  un- 
derstood by  the  pupil,  it  aids  him  to  confine  his  atten- 
tion, and  form  a  conception  of  the  relative  magnitude 
of  continents,  mountains,  and  rivers,  and  of  the  rela- 
tive situation  of  places,  better  than  the  most  laboured 
descriptions,  without  such  aid.     But  the  principle  of 
arrangement,   upon  which   all   the  books  upon  this 
subject  have  been   written,   I    beg  leave  to  object  to 
decidedly   and  strongly.      The  pupil   is  presented  in 
the   onset,  with  a  map  of  the   whole  world,   reduced 
to  the  size  of  a  hat  crown.     In  connexion  with  this, 
he  is  directed    to  read  a  description   of  the  largest 
rivers,  mountains,  and  seas  ;  and  also  to  commit   to 
memory  some  account  of  the  character  and  manners 
of  the  principal  nations.     Perhaps  he  will  now   be 
required  to  learn  the  amount  of  exports  imd  imports 
of  the  most  commercial  nations  to  tho  accuracy  of  a 
farthing. 

Some,  not  content  with  presenting  the  whole  earth 
to  the  first  and  single  glance  of  the  young  learner,  and, 
as  if  determined  to  push  the  absurdity  of  the  plan  to  the 
11 


82 

utmost,  have  given  the  whole  solar  s\stem  to  the  child, 
for  his  first  lesson  in  geography.  This  is  called 
setting  up  landmarks,  and  getting  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject ;  but  so  far  from  that,  in  my 
view,  it  is  getting  no  knowledge  at  all.  It  is  only  a 
confusion  of  words,  without  any  definite  meaning 
attached  to  them. 

The  subject  is  begun  precisely  at  the  wrong  end. 
If  it  is  addressed  to  the  understanding  of  the  youn^ 
learner,  this  arrangement  seems  to  presume,  that  he 
w  ill  take  a  deeper  interest  in,  and  better  comprehend 
the  general  features  of  the  world,  embracing  its  largest 
mountains  and  rivers,  and  the  characters  of  nations,  of 
whose  existence  he  has  never  before  heard,  than  of  the 
roads,  hills,  and  rivers  of  his  own  neighbourhood,  and 
the  boundaries  of  his  own  town,  county,  or  state.  Be- 
sides, he  can  get  no  adequate  idea  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  largest  mountains  and  rivers  in  the  world,  except 
by  comparing  them  with  the  mountains  and  rivers, 
which  he  has  seen,  and  of  which  he  has  formed  some 
definite  idea. 

In  forming  a  conception  of  a  distant  mountain  or 
river,  which  we  have  never  seen,  we  proceed  pre- 
cisely as  we  do  in  forming  a  conception  of  any  other 
magnitude.  We  fix  upon  something  of  the  same 
kind,  which  is  known,  as  a  unit  of  measure ;  and 
then  compare  and  discover  the  relation  of  what  is 
known,  with  what  is  unknown.  So  the  child  could 
form  some  idea  of  a  mountain  twice  as  high  as  the 
liill  before  his  eyes  ;  or  he  could  form  a  tolerable 


83 

conception  of  a  river,  three  times  as  long  and  as 
broad,  as  the  brook,  which  runs  before  his  father's 
door,  or  the  river,  he  may,  perhaps,  have  seen  in  a 
neighbouring  town ;  but  tell  him,  at  once,  the  Him- 
maleh  mountains  in  Asia,  are  25,669  feet  high  ;  and 
the  river  Amazon,  in  South  America,  extends  3500 
miles  in  length,  and  empties  into  the  ocean  on  the 
equator,  from  a  mouth  of  150  miles  wide,  and  I  am 
much  mistaken,  if  he  forms  the  least  conception  of 
what  he  is  told. 

The  correct  plan  for  an  elementary  geography, 
would  begin  nearer  home,  with  a  description,  and  if 
practicable,  with  a  map  of  the  town,  in  which  the 
young  learner  lives.  Or  if  that  is  too  particular  for 
general  use,  the  instructer  must  supply  the  descrip- 
tion ;  and  the  map  begin  with  his  own  county,  or 
state,  in  which  he  will  of  course  be  most  interested. 
From  this  he  may  proceed  to  his  whole  country  or 
kingdom,  and  thence  to  more  general  divisions  of  the 
earth.  The  map  will  of  course  be  reduced  in  its 
scale,  and  the  descriptions  grow  less  and  less  minute, 
as  the  places  are  farther  removed  ;  or  from  any  cause, 
are  less  interesting.  If  I  have  remarked  with  freedom 
on  the  state  of  books  upon  this  subject,  it  has  been 
without  reference  to  persons,  and  with  the  single 
motive  of  inducing  those  authors,  to  whom  we  are 
already  indebted  for  many  improvements,  to  examine 
their  plans,  and  see  if  one  cannot  be  adopted,  more 
consonant  to  the  principles  of  the  youthful  mind. 


»4 


LETTER  VI. 


IT  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  of  the  in- 
ductive method  of  communicating  knowledge  upon 
other  subjects,  but  I  shall  confine  myself  to  one  more. 
Arithmetick  deserves  the  place,  both  because  it  affords 
an  opportunity  to  obviate  some  of  tfie  prejudices, 
which  exist  against  it,  as  a  study  for  young  learners ; 
and  at  the  same  time,  to  examine  the  leading  features 
of  a  system,  already  before  the  publick,  and  written 
upon  the  principle  to  be  illustrated.  Improvements 
in  the  method  of  teaching  numbers  have  been  more 
slowly  made,  than  in  any  other  branch  of  elementary 
instruction.  This  can  hardly  be  accounted  for,  ex- 
cept that  the  subject  has  always  been  considered  one 
of  peculiar  and  iutrinsiok  difficulties,  which  could  not 
be  encountered  successfully,  but  by  those  few  minds, 
favoured  of  Heaven,  with  a  sort  of  mathematical 
inspiration. 

Under  such  discouraging  impressions,  we  need  not 
be  surprised,  that  no  one  has  appeared  to  convince 
the  publick  by  example,  that  the  subject  is  not  so 
intrinsically  difficult,  as  has  been  imagined  ;  in  fact, 
that  it  is  completely  level  to  any  capacity,  which  can 
comprehend  any  subject.  The  consequence  of  the 
miserable  state  of  the  books,  has  been,  that  while  all 


85 

other  branches  have  been  gaining  ground,  and  been 
better  and  better  taught,  arithmetick  has  lost,  what 
other  branches  have  gained  ;  and  instead  of  being 
best  and  most  successfully  taught,  as  its  importance 
demands,  it  has  been  the  worst,  and  most  carelessly 
taught. 

No  adequate  reason  can  be  assigned  for  the  declin- 
ing interest  of  arithmetick  in  our  schools,  for  the  last 
twenty  years,  but  the  vast  disparity  in  improvements 
in   the  books   on   this,    and  other  subjects.       Some 
variety  exists  in  the   great  abundance  of  elementary 
arithmeticks,  but  the  same  general  principle  of  com- 
municating knowledge  pervades  them  all.     This  prin- 
ciple is  wrong.     It  is  wrong,  first,  because  it  does  not 
give  the  best  knowledge   of  the   subject ;  and   it  is 
wrong,  secondly,   because  it  does  not  afford  the  best 
discipline  to  the  mind.     These  are  the  only  purposes, 
for  which   an   elementary    book   is   studied ;   and   a 
failure   in  both   or  either  of  these   points,  is  capital, 
and  fatal  to  the  branch  to  be  taught.     The  systems 
have  been  formed,  no  doubt,  by  good  mathematicians, 
but  the  object  of  a  school   book,    as  has   been  before 
observed,  is  not  to  reduce   the  science  to   the  fewest 
general  principles,  and  state   those   principles,  as  a 
philosopher  wrould  arrange  and  state  them  for  his  own 
convenience.     Adaptation  to   the  mind,  which  is  ac- 
quiring  the  science,  must  be  ever   kept  in  view,    by 
the  writer  of  a   school  book,   which   is  destined  to 
answer  the  only  purposes  for  which  it  is  written. 
The  plan  of  all   arithmeticks,  till  quite  lately,  has 


86 

been,  to  state  the  principle  or  rule  to  be  taught  in  the 
most  concise  manner  possible,  and  then  arrange  under 
it,  examples  of  its  application.  This  is  called  the 
synthetick,  in  contradistinction  to  the  analytic  method, 
which  begins  with  examples,  and  at  length  arrives  at 
a  rule.  Now  the  first  part  of  the  process  by  syn- 
thesis, cannot  be  said  to  give  the  best,  if  it  can  be 
said  to  give  any  knowledge  of  the  subject.  For, 
what  is  a  learner  wiser  after  he  has  committed  the 
general  principle  or  rule  to  his  memory  ?  And  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  do  any  thing  more,  without  pre- 
supposing in  him  some  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
This  operation  in  itself  can,  certainly,  give  him  no 
knowledge  ;  because  it  is  an  abstract  principle,  stated 
in  terms,  of  which  he  has  probably  never  heard.  And 
if  he  has  no  ideas  attached  to  the  principal  terms,  of 
which  the  sentence  is  composed,  he  cannot  understand 
the  relation  of  the  ideas,  intended  to  be  expressed  in 
the  sentence. 

Should  the  learner,  therefore,  after  committing  a 
rule  to  his  memory,  be  able  to  solve  a  question  under 
it,  the  operation  must  be  merely  mechanical.  He 
begins  as  the  rule  directs,  and  when  he  has  read  or 
said  a  sentence,  he  puts  his  finger  upon  the  place,  lest 
he  should  do  the  same  thing  again,  and  conforms 
literally  with  his  direction.  This  done,  he  proceeds 
to  read  another  sentence,  and  in  like  manner  to 
comply  \vith  its  direction,  and  at  length  out  comes 
the  answer.  If  any  pupil  is  able  to  do  better,  than  I 
have  described,  it  is  not  because  the  rule,  he  has 


87 

committed,  has  made  him  able.  He  has  not  been 
called  upon,  in  this  process,  to  exercise  any  discrim- 
ination, judgment,  or  reasoning.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult, in  fact,  to  tell  by  what  powers  of  the  mind  he 
has  done  it.  So  that,  as  a  discipline  to  his  mind,  he 
has  derived  none,  or  ver/  little  advantage.  The 
powers  of  the  mind  are  strengthened  only  by  exercise. 
He  has  acquired  no  knowledge  of  the  subject,  except 
perhaps,  a  greater  facility  in  the  mechanical  operation. 
He  applies  a  rule  with  as  little  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  the  science,  as  the  man  has,  who  works 
in  a  chemical  laboratory  by  receipts.  He  forms  a 
compound  of  certain  elements,  as  directed  by  his 
receipt,  and  obtains  the  desired  result.  But  no  one 
would  call  him  a  chemist.  This  process  does  not 
constitute,  or  impart  a  knowledge  of  that  science. 
That  is  gained  only  by  a  minute  analysis  of  the  parts, 
which  are  to  enter  into  the  compound,  and  the  exam- 
ination of  their  affinities  for  each  other. 

When  the  pupil  has  been  worried  through  his 
Brithmetick ;  he  is  worried,  because  he  cannot  take 
pleasure  in  dwelling  so  long  on  what  he  does  not  in  the 
least  understand  ;  his  mind  is  very  little  improved,  for 
those  faculties,  which  give  the  most  decided  character 
to  a  mind,  have  not  been  called  into  exercise.  And  he 
is  hardly  better  prepared  for  the  business  of  life,  for  he 
can  neither  remember  the  rule,  nor  the  application  of 
it.  But  the  parent  is  satisfied,  because  the  child  has 
been  through  the  book,  and  can  repeat  all  the  rules 
it  contains :  aud  moreover,  he  can  flourish  in  the 


88 

application  of  any  rule  to  the  ex(tmi>l<  .v,  which  are 
put  under  it,  and  which  his  instructor  has  probably 
led  him  through  again  and  again.  The  instructer  is 
satisfied  because  the  parent  is ;  and  the  pupil  i- 
doubly  satisfied,  on  both  accounts.  But  before  any 
of  the  knowledge,  which  has  been  thus  attained,  can 
be  very  safely  put  into  practice,  it  must  be  learned 
again,  and  rules  for  the  individual  must  be  arrived  at, 
in  the  only  legitimate  method,  viz  :  by  induction  of 
particular  examples.  In  confirmation  of  this,  if  it 
needs  confirmation,  we  need  only  refer  to  men  of 
business. 

Who,  that  is  actually  engaged  in  mercantile  life. 
thinks  of  applying  the  dogmatical  rule,  he  has  learned 
at  school  ?  In  the  frequent  occasions  the  merchant  ha< 
for  arithmetical  calculations,  he  examines  the  particular 
case,  and  makes  a  rule  for  himself.  In  this  respect 
the  man  of  business  is  a  much  better  philosopher, 
than  the  student,  who  must  hunt  up  an  analogous 
case,  and  produce  his  rule  from  a  book.  In  this 
manner,  the  rtiles  of  a  man  of  business  will  be  made  to 
correct  his  knowledge,  and  put  it  in  a  form  convenient 
to  be  remembered,  and  not  by  any  means  to  give  the 
knowledge,  as  the  usual  method  seems  to  intimate. 

All  the  evils,  which  result  from  a  disgust  of  the 
study,  from  conveying  inadequate  ideas  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  from  paralyzing  in  a  degree,  the  opening 
powers  of  the  mind,  are  removed,  when  it  is  presented 
in  the  natural  and  most  philosophical  manner.  Then- 
is  nothing  in  it  peculiarly  difficult.  On  the  contra  r\ . 


89 

when  presented  in  a  form  adapted  to  the  capacity 
of  the  learner,  it  has  peculiar  interest  with  most 
young  minds  ;  and  is  peculiarly  calculated  to  call  forth 
and  strengthen  their  powers.  On  this  point  may  be 
cited  the  opinions  of  some  of  the  most  acute  observ- 
ers of  any  age,  of  the  phenomena  of  mind.  "  Arith- 
metick,"  says  Locke,  "is  the  easiest,  and  conse- 
quently the  first  sort  of  abstract  reasoning,  which 
the  mind  bears  or  ar-customs  itself  to ;  and  is  of  so 

* 

general  use  in  all  parts  of  life  and  business,  that 
scarce  any  thing  is  to  be  done  without  it."*  "  Would 
you  have  a  man  reason  well,"  says  the  same  author, 
"  you  must  use  him  to  it  betimes  ;  exercise  his  mind 
in  observing  the  connexion  of  ideas  and  following 
them  in  train.  Nothing  does  this  better  than  math- 
ematicks ;  which,  therefore,  I  think  should  be  taught 
all  those,  who  have  time  and  opportunity,  not  so 
much  to  make  them  mathematicians,  as  to  make 
them  reasonable  creatures,  "f  "  For,"  he  says  again, 
"  the  business  of  education  in  respect  of  knowledge, 
is  not  to  perfect  a  learner  in  all,  or  any  one  of  the 
sciences,  but  to  give  his  mind  that  freedom,  that 
disposition,  and  those  habits,  that  may  enable  him  to 
attain  any  part  of  knowledge,  he  shall  apply  himself 
to,  or  stand  in  need  of,  in  the  future*  course  of  his 
life."  A  word  from  Dr.  Watts.  "  Converse  much," 
says  he,  in  his  work  on  the  improvement  of  the 
mind,  "  with  those  friends,  and  those  books,  and 
those  parts  of  learning,  where  you  meet  with  the 
*  Treatise  on  Education.  t  Conduct  of  the  Understanding. 

12 


DO 

rlrariii'ss  of  thought  ami  Ibrcc  of  reasoning. 
The  mathematical  sciences,  and  particularly  Aritli- 
mctick,  Geometry,  and  Alrrhanirks,  abound  with 
ihosr  adxantages;  and  if  there  were  nothing  valua- 
ble in  tin-in,  for  the  uses  of  human  life,  yet  the  very 
speculative  parts  of  this  sort  of  learning,  are  well 
worth  our  study  ;  for,  by  perpetual  examples,  they 
teach  us  to  conceive  with  clearness,  to  connect  our 
ideas  in  a  train  of  dependence,  to  reason*  with 
strength  and  demonstration,  and  to  distinguish  be- 
t  \\ren  truth  and  falsehood.  Something  of  these  sci- 
ences should  be  studied  by  every  man,  who  pretends 
to  Irani i 

When,  therefore,  we  consider  the  influence  of 
arithmetical  studies,  in  disciplining  the  mind ;  when 
we  estimate  the  utility  of  the  knowledge  to  be 
gained,  in  the  transaction  of  the  various  business  of 
life ;  and,  especially,  when  we  view  the  subject 
as  lying  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole  science  of 
mathematicks  ;  or  rather  as  the  instrument,  or  key, 
without  which  we  cannot  proceed  to  the  higher 
branches  of  the  science,  it  rises  to  no  small  dignity 
among  elementary  studies.  To  all,  it  is  important, 
to  the  man  of  business  and  the  scholar,  it  is  essen- 
tial. There  is  little  danger,  therefore,  ot  examining 
too  closely  into  the  character  of  our  books  upon  the 
subject.  And  there  is,  perhaps,  as  little  danger  of 
osing  too  plainly  the  weakness  and  deformity  of 
the  bud,  or  of  overestimating  the  value  of  the  good. 


91 

The  system  of  Arithmetick,  to  which  I  have  be- 
fore alluded,  and  which  it  is  proposed  to  examine,  as 
I  proceed,  as  a  specimen  of  inductive  instruction, 
was  published  a  year  or  two  since,  "  by  Warren 
Colburn."'  It  is  contained  in  two  small  volumes, 
entitled  "  First  Lessons  in  Arithmetick  upon  the  plan 
of  Pestalozzi,"f  and  "  Arithmetick,  being  a  Sequel' 

*  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  thus  publickly  to  acknowledge  ray 
obligations  to  Mr.  Colburn,  not  only  for  the  light,  lie  has  afforded 
me  upon  the  subject  of  Arithmetick,  but  for  what  has  been  re- 
flected from  that  subject  to  others,  which  have  been  before  no- 
ticed. 

tThe  "  First  Lessons"  profess  to  be  "upon  the  plan  of  Pesta- 
lozzi." Some  account  therefore,  of  this  remarkable  man,  will 
enable  readers  to  judge,  how  far  Mr.  Colburn  is  indebted  to  him, 
for  his  system  of  Arithmetick.  Pestalozzi  was  born  at  Zurich  in 
1746.  His  parents  were  too  obscure  for  him  to  inherit  much 
consequence  or  notice  on  their  account.  He  early  became  inter- 
ested in  the  subject  of  education,  and  viewing  the  miserable  con- 
dition of  the  lower  classes  of  the  people  in  his  neighbourhood, 
he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  elementary  instruction,  as  the 
most  direct  and  effectual  means  of  improving  their  situation  and 
prospects.  From  the  time  he  commenced  instructer,  he  was  so 
exclusively  devoted  to  his  employment,  that  he  seemed  to  live 
only  for  that  object. 

He  made  bold  innovations  upon  the  established  principles  of 
instruction,  and  probably  on  that  account,  did  not  at  first  receive 
such  notice,  as  his  exertions  merited.  But  the  ardour  of  his  in- 
terest was  not  cooled  by  neglect.  The  aid  of  a  few  friends,  who 
were  attracted  by  the  reasonableness  of  his  principles  of  instruc- 
tion, and  an  inefficient  patronage  from  the  government  of  his 
Canton,  enabled  him  to  establish  a  school,  which  gave  some  ce- 
lebrity to  his  name,  and  at  length  gained  the  assistance  of  some 
very  warm  and  able  friends.  Pestalozzi  was  at  length  united 


92 

to  First  Lessons."  Waving  here  tin1  question  of  in- 
dependent authorship,  which  Mr.  C'olbnm  miirht 
with  some  propriety  claim,  I  shall  enter,  at  once,  in 

with  Mr.  de  Fellenberg,  who  from  similar  motives  had  »-.-tahli>li- 
ed  a  school  at  HofTwyl.  This  school  has  attracted  considerable 
notice  in  Kurope,  and  has  been  ;i]iproved,  and  encouraged  by 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  ago. 

The  object  of  Mr.  de  Fellenberg  was,  to  find  a  plan  for  the 
education  of  the  poorer  classes  of  society,  at  the  least  e\p<  MM-. 
Agriculture,  therefore,  constituted  an  essential  part  of  the  edu- 
cation.  But  the  principles  of  government  and  instruction,  adopt- 
ed at  his  school,  succeeded  so  well,  that  pupils  were  sent  from 
many  of  the  principal  families  in  every  part  of  Europe.  In  con- 
junction with,  and  under  the  patronage  of  Mr.  de  Fellenberg, 
who  was  a  gentleman  of  some  fortune,  1'estalo/zi  was  enabled  to 
carry  his  improvements  in  the  principles  of  instruction,  into 
more  complete  operation.  It  would  be  foreign  to  my  present 
purpose,  however  interesting  the  subject,  to  go  into  the  detail  of 
that  establishment.  We  are  interested,  at  present,  only  in  the 
method  of  instruction. 

It  was  a  fundamental  principle  in  their  system,  never  to  suffer 
a  pupil  to  pass  over,  what  he  did  not  thoroughly  comprehend. 
The  course  of  instruction  was  so  conducted,  as  to  give  accurate 
and  well  defined  ideas  upon  the  subject  to  be  taught.  For  this 
object,  the  instructor  gave  lessons  in  the  field  ;  and  upon  sub- 
jects, which  there  presented  themvlves.  This  manner  excited 
and  kept  up  a  lively  interest  in  the  learner,  because  he  saw  at 
once  the  use  and  application  of  what  ho  was  learning.  The  in- 
structor was  thus  spared  the  perplexing  question.  u  eui  bono  r" 
which  so  constantly  arises  in  the  pupil's  mind,  and  which  rnn  so 
seldom  be  satisfactorily  answered.  '•  Qne»i>.>ns  continually  oc- 
curred respecting  the  measures  of  capacity,  length,  weight,  ai-d 
their  fractional  parts;  the  cubic  foments  of  a  piece  of  timber, 
or  a  stack  of  hay,  the  time  necessary  to  perform  any  particular 
task,  under  such  or  such  circumstances,  &c.  &c."  The  boys  en- 


93 

to  an  examination  of  the  general  principles  of  the 
system ;  it  being  a  much  more  interesting  question, 
what  the  system  is,  than  whose  it  is.  The  system 

deavoured  to  find  the  solution  of  arithmetical  and  mathematical 
problems  without  writing,  and  at  the  same  time  to  proceed  with 
the  mechanical  process,  in  which  they  might  happen  to  be  engaged. 
This  method  of  instruction,  among  improvements  in  other 
branclus,  gave  rise  to  the  plan  of  Arithmetick,  invented  by  Pcsta- 
lozzi.  He  began  with  the  most  simple  combinations  upon  small 
numbers,  and  proceeded  to  the  more  difficult,  as  the  learner  ac- 
quired strength  to  encounter  them.  The  language  of  figures, 
and  their  use  in  the  solution  of  questions  involving  large  num- 
bers, were  reserved  for  a  later  and  more  difficult  stage  in  their 
progress.  These  hints  constitute  th-2  principal  assistance,  which 
Mr.  Colburn  derived  from  Pestalozzi,  in  forming  his  system  of 
Arithmetick.  He  has  adopted  the  arrangement  of  Pestalozzi  in 
some  of  the  combinations,  but  he  has  rejected  it  in  others,  qud 
developed  all,  by  the  selection-  and  composition  of  examples,  in 
which  he  derived  no  assistance  from  him.  Pestalozzi  undoubted- 
ly discovered  the  applicability  of  the  inductive  method  to  com- 
municating knowledge,  whether  he  knew  it  by  that  name  or  not, 
and  applied  that  method  in  teaching  the  science  of  numbers. 
Mr.  Colburn,  with  hints  from  him,  has  applied  the  same  method 
to  teaching  the  same  subject,  but  in  a  manner  somewhat  peculiar 
to  himself.  Both,  in  common  with  all  the  philosophers  since 
Bacon,  are  indebted  to  him  for  telling  them  how  to  learn,  and 
how  to  teach.  And  it  would,  perhaps,  be  better  if  Mr.  Colburn 
would  say  at  once,  "  Arithmetick  upon  the  plan  of  Bacon,"  rath- 
er than  adopt  apy  name,  which  can  only  reflect,  what  it  has  re- 
ceived from  him.  The  identity  of  the  principles  of  this  method 
of  instruction,  with  the  inductive  method  of  acquiring  knowledge, 
taught  by  Bacon,  has  never  been  established  ^ind  inculcated  by 
those,  who  have  adopted  the  method  as  a  basis  for  their  books. 
[For  a  more  full  account  of  the  establishment  at  Jloflwyl,  see 
Ed.  Rev.  Oct.  1819;  and  Simond's  Switzerland.  Vol.  ii.  pp.  l<J3t 
194  and  330—340.] 


94 

is  new,  and  widely  different,  from  any  thing  before 
published  in  this  country.  These  circumstances,  to- 
gether with  the  importance  of  the  subject,  and  the 
happy  illustration,  it  affords,  of  inductive  instruction  : 
seem  to  require  a  pretty  detailed  account  of  it ;  I 
shall  confine  myself,  however,  in  my  remarks,  mere- 
ly to  general  principles,  except  so  far  as  detail  is  es- 
sential to  their  illustration. 

The  distinctive  traits  in  the  character  of  the  sys- 
tem will  be  at  once  seen,  by  examining  it  under 
the  following  principal  divisions — 

I.  It  teaches  all  the  combinations  in  Arithmetick, 
with   numbers  so  small,  that  the  mind  of  the   pupil 
can  perfectly  comprehend  them. 

II.  Every  new  combination  is  introduced  by  prac- 
tical examples  upon  concrete  numbers. 

III.  All  those  rules,  which   are  merely  artificial, 
and  those  formed   for   particular  applications  of  the 
same  general  principle,  have  been  discarded. 

The  first  principle  above  stated  gives  rise  to  the 
division  of  the  subject  into  the  "  First  Lessons"  and 
"  Sequel."  The  solution  of  every  arithmetical 
problem  requires  two  processes  ;  first,  to  analyze  the 
question  and  determine  the  relation  of  the  several 
numbers ;  and  then  to  reason  upon  those  numbers, 
in  a  manner  peculiar  to  the  science,  till  the  result  re- 
quired is  attained.  These  two  processes  must  be 
performed  in  the  solution  of  every  problem ;  but 
\\  lien  the  numbers  are  so  small,  as  not  to'require  the 
aid  of  a  written  numeration,  they  are  both  performed 


together.  That  is,  the  relations  of  the  numbers  arc 
discovered,  at  once,  as  fast  as  in  the  analysis,  they 
are  compared  with  each  other. 

This  division  of  the  subject  has  never,  to  my 
knowledge,  been  made,  in  any  system  of  arithme- 
tick,  published  in  this  country.  And  in  consequence 
of  presenting  both  processes  in  a  combined  form  at 
first,  neither  has  been  very  perfectly  learned ;  and 
the  reasoning,  which  is  the  more  important,  both  as 
a  part  of  arithmetick,  and  as  a  discipline  to  the 
mind,  has  been  least  understood.  At  the  age  arith- 
metick is  first  put  into  the  hands  of  a  learner,  the 
importance  of  having  him  attain  clear  ideas  of  his 
subject,  can  hardly  be  estimated.  If  a  habit  is 
contracted  at  this  period,  of  being  satisfied  with 
loose,  shadowy,  and  ill  defined  ideas,  it  will  exercise 
a  strong  and  pernicious  influence,  through  the  whole 
course  of  his  education  ;  and  perhaps  produce  a  de- 
cided cast  in  the  character  of  his  mind.  To  coun- 
teract this  habit,  and  form  the  contrary  one  of  at- 
taining distinct  ideas,  and  reasoning  clearly  upon 
every  subject,  the  learner  must  be  presented  with 
such  processes  of  reasoning  only,  as  that  he  can 
perfectly  comprehend  every  step  in  the  process. 
This  can  be  done  in  the  science  of  numbers,  only, 
by  giving  examples  of  reasoning  upon  small  numbers, 
till  the  mind  acquires  sufficient  strength  to  encounter 
more  complicated  combinations  upon  large  numbers. 

The  power  of  attention,  which  is  so  essential  to 
every  mind,  and  which  it  is  so  difficult  for  the  young 


96 

mind  to  acquire  or  control,  is  more  improved  by 
arithmetical  calculations,  than  by  almost  any  disci- 
pline, which  can  be  offered.  And  when  it  is  once 
acquired  by  the  study  of  numbers,  it  may  be  easily 
transferred  to  other  studies ;  and  thus  all  the  sciences 
derive  an  advantage,  from  the  increased  strength  of 
a  power,  which  fc\v  or  none  have  so  happy  a  tenden- 
cy to  improve. 

The  "  First  Lessons"  introduce  and  inculcate  eve- 
ry principle  in  arithmetick,  by  a  collection  of  ex- 
amples, although  not  a  rule  is  given  in  the  book. 
It  must  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  a  mere  col- 
lection of  examples  constitutes  an  inductive  arithme- 
tick. To  a  superficial  observer,  it  would  seem  no 
very  difficult  matter,  to  bring  together  examples  to 
any  extent.  And  if  this  were  all,  that  is  essential 
to  a  complete  and  successful  induction,  it  would,  in* 
deed,  be  easy,  and  quite  within  the  power  of  any 
one,  who  has  sufficient  patience.  But  this  is  the 
least  and  the  lowest  of  the  efforts  necessary  to  ac- 
complish such  a  work.  The  mind  of  him,  who 
would  undertake  to  make  a  book  of  this  kind,  \\ith 
any  rational  hope  of  success,  must  be  capable  to 
take  in,  at  one  view,  the  whole  subject.  He  must 
resolve,  without  any  reference  to  existing  books,  ar- 
rangements, or  rules,  the  whole  science  inio  its  first, 
and  essential  principles.  And  be  able  to  compre- 
hend the>e,  in  all  their  relations  and  dependencies 
upon  eacli  other.  For  they  cannot  be  successfully 
developed,  except  in  the  order  01  such  dependence. 


97 

And  when  by  the  exercise  of  no  common  share  of 
acuteness,  these  elementary  and  essential  principles 
are  arranged  in  their  natural  order ;  the  mass  of  ex- 
amples must  be  carefully  examined  and  assorted,  for 
the  development  of  each  principle,  and  for  each  com- 
bination of  principles.  The  work  is  still  but  pro- 
gressing. The  examples  thus  assorted  according  to 
the  principles  involved  in  them,  must  be  again  ex- 
amined and  arranged  with  reference  to  the  young 
mind,  which  is  to  encounter  them.  A  neglect  or 
failure  in  this  point  would  be  as  fatal  as  in  any  other. 
From  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  would  seem'  no 
humble  labour,  to  produce  a  consistent  book  upon 
such  a  plan.  And  the  author  may  congratulate  him- 
self, and  the  publick  may  well  congratulate  him,  if 
he  gets  through  such  a  work,  without  making  some, 
nay,  many  mistakes. 

Upon  this  plan,  the  pupil  learns  the  reasoning,  and 
not  the  technical  name  for  it.  And,  I  am  much 
mistaken,  if  the  child  or  youth,  who  has  carefully 
analyzed  every  example  in  this  little  book,  (which 
claims  to  be  only  first  lessons,)  and  found  the  an- 
swer in  his  own  way,  has  not  a  better  knowledge  of 
fractions  in  all  their  combinations,  and  in  fact,  of 
every  principle  of  arithmetick,  than  it  would  be  pos- 
sible for  him  to  gain,  by  reading  the  most  elaborate 
treatise  on  the  synthetick  plan.  The  little  reasoner 
will  not  dare  to  say  he  has  learned  Addition,  Sub- 
traction, Multiplication,  and  Division  ;  Interest,  Sin- 
gle Rule  of  Three,  and  Double  Rule  of  Three ;  foe 


98 

he  has  probably  never  heard  of  half  these  terms. 
But  propose  him  a  question  under  either  of  those 
rules,  involving  only  numbers  within  his  comprehen- 
sion, and  he  will  analyze  the  problem,  and  perform 
every  operation  in  the  solution  distinctly,  •  and  give 
you  the  correct  result.  And  if  he  is  called  to  it,  he 
will  explain  the  why  and  wherefore  of  every  step  in 
the  process. 

Now,  when  parents  leave  off  insisting,  that  their 
children's  memories  shall  be  burthened  with  a  confu- 
sion of  rules,  which  they  do  not  in  the  least  under- 
stand, and  which  it  requires  all  the  energy  of  the 
young  mind  to  retain  ;  and  when  they  become  con- 
tented, that  their  powers  of  mind  are  developing  in 
their  natural  order,  and  as  fast  as  the  God  of  nature 
intended  they  should  be  developed,  we  may  expect 
this  subject  to  become  more  interesting  to  young 
learners,  and  to  be  more  scientifically  and  success- 
fully taught. 

After  the  power  of  attention  is  strengthened,  and 
habits  of  discrimination  and  analysis  are  in  some  de- 
gree formed,  by  examples  on  small  numbers;  the 
next  thing  to  be  learned  is,  a  knowledge*  of  the  arbi- 
trary signs  or  figures,  and  their  use  in  facilitating  our 
reasoning  upon  large  numbers.  This  is  taught  in  the 
"  Sequel,"  which  adds  what  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  science  of  arithmetick.  The  "  Sequel"  is 
divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  contains  examples 
only  ;  and  those  arranged,  as  in  the  "  First  Lessons," 
in  the  order  of  their  dependence  upon  each  other. 


99 

And  if  the   principles,  by  which   the  examples   are 
to  be  solved,  have  no  dependence,  they  are  arranged 
in  the  reversed  order  of  the  difficulty  a  learner  will 
be   likely   to  encounter,   in  their  solution.     This  ar- 
rangement ejiables  the  learner  to  bring  the  increased 
strength   of  his  mind,  at  each  advance,  to  bear  upon 
the  more  difficult  parts  of  his  subject.     The  second 
part  contains  an  analytical  development  of  the  prin- 
ciples, and  is  to  be  studied   in  connexion  with   the 
first.     When  the  learner  has   performed  the   exam- 
ples in  the  first  part,  which  involve  a  principle,  he  is 
turned  to  the  second  part,  and   there  sees  the  same 
principle    developed   in    an    abstract   form,     till    at 
length  he  arrives  at  a   rule,  which  he  can  now  com- 
prehend, because  he  has  learned  all   the   variety  of 
particular  examples,  to  which  the  rule  is  applicable. 
The  rule  is  now,  no  more  than  a  verbal  generalisa- 
tion of  what  he  has  already  learned  :  and  it  is  the 
last  thing  he  arrives  at  in  order,  instead  of  the  first, 
as  in  all  other  systems.     The  separation  of  the  ex- 
amples, and  the  analytical  development  of  the  prin- 
ciples, into  two  separate  parts  of  the  work,  is  arbi- 
trary, and  not  at  all  essential  to  it,  as  a  specimen  of 
induction.     It  would  be  as  convenient  for  the  pupil, 
to  arrive  at  his  rule  at  the  end  of  his  examples,  as  to 
be  turned  to  a  different  part  of  the  book.     Although 
in  this  form,  it  would   be  more  difficult  to  see,   at 
once,  the  outline  of  the  subject. 

The  method  of  putting   the  examples  before,  and 
as  a  means  of  arriving  at  the  rule,  is  undoubtedly  the 


inn 

correct  one,  for  all  subjects,  which  are  to  be  learned 
by  induction  ;  but  all  subjects  are  not  so  to  be  learned. 
The  language  of  arithmetick,  including  notation  and 
numeration,  b  not  a  subject  to  be  learned  by  expe- 
rience. The  signification  of  the  digits,  1,  2,  3,  &c.T 
is  arbitrary,  and  the  laws,  by  which  they  are  used  in 
reasoning  upon  numbers,  are  arbitrary.  The  meaning 
of  figures,  and  the  laws,  by  which  they  are  used,  are 
agreed  upon  by  arithmeticians,  and  he,  who  ap- 
proaches the  subject  of  arithmetick,  must  first  be  ini- 
tiated into  the  meaning  of  the  signs  and  symbols 
peculiar  to  the  science.  Mr.  Colburn's  system  in 
one  instance,  violates  this  principle.  It  requires  the 
learner  to  write  in  words,  examples  of  large  numbers 
expressed  in  figures,  before  it  teaches  him  numeration. 
It  would  be  impossible  for  a  learner  to  "  write  in 
words  270,000,838,103,908,"  before  he  had  been 
told  the  meaning  of  these  signs,  and  the  laws,  by 
which  they  are  made  significant  of  different  numbers, 
as  they  occupy  different  places. 

In  the  corresponding  article,  in  the  second  part, 
Mr.  Col  burn  has  given  the  subject  a  thorough  inves- 
tigation. And  I  have  never  seen  so  intelligible  a 
treatise  on  numeration  as  is  there  contained  in  a  few 
pages.  It  may  be  suggested  to  him,  to  mafce  some 
different  arrangement,  in  the  future  editions  of  his 
book,  by  which  this  departure  from  the  plan  of  never 
presenting  a  difficulty,  which  the  learner  is  not  com- 
petent to  surmount,  shall  be  remedied. 


101 


LETTER  VII 


THE  second  distinctive  characteristick  of  the  in- 
ductive system  of  arithmetick,  which  I  proposed  in 
the  preceding  letter  to  examine,  is  this  ; — Every  new 
combination  is  introduced,  by  practical  examples 
upon  concrete  numbers.  This,  together  with  the 
principle  of  always  beginning  with  numbers  so  small, 
that  the  mind  of  the  learner  can  perfectly  compre- 
hend them,  constitute  an  essential  part  of  what  is 
peculiar  to  the  inductive  system.  The  resonableness 
of  the  principle  above  laid  down,  will  be  more  appa- 
rent, when  I  have  attempted  an  analysis  of  the  process 
of  abstraction  performed  in  the  mind  of  a  child  in  its 
first  attempts  to  reason  upon  numbers. 

Abstraction  is  one  of  the  last,  as  well  as  most  diffi- 
cult processes,  which  the  young  mind  performs.  The 
plan,  therefore,  of  introducing  every  new  combination, 
by  examples  upon  concrete  numbers,  is  the  dictate  of 
sound  philosophy.  It  has  its  origin  in  the  phenomena 
of  the  human  mind,  and  is  consonant  with  their  gen- 
eral and  acknowledged  laws. 

Perception  is  a  power  earlier  developed  in  the  mind 
of  a  child,  than  conception.  It  is  much  easier,  to 
attain  the  perception  of  an  object,  which  is  presented 
to  the  senses,  than  to  form  a  conception  of  the  same 


1UJ 

object,  when  it  is  withdrawn  from  their  cognizance. 
The  importance  of  calling  out  the  tender  powers  of 
mind  by  judicious  discipline,  in  the  order  nature  lia- 
pointed  out,  has  never  been,  and  hardly  can  be  suf- 
ficiently estimated.  The  science  of  numbers  is  an  ab- 
stract science;  but  the  first  ideas  of  number  must  bo 
derived  from  things.  And  nature  has  made  three;  pretty 
distinct  steps,  in  the  process  of  abstracting  the  num- 
bers from  the  things,  to  which  they  are  alwa\s  at 
first  attached.  The  first,  when  the  objects  are  pre- 
sent to  the  senses,  to  which  the  numbers  to  be  rea- 
soned upon  are  applied.  The  second,  when  thoso 
objects  are  absent  from  the  senses,  and  the  mind  must 
form  some  conception  of  them,  as  something  to 
which  to  attach  the  numbers.  The  third,  is  what  is 
properly  called  abstraction,  and  loosens,  if  it  may  be 
so  called,  the  numbers  from  every  object;  and  the 
mind  reasons  upon  them,  without  reference  to  any- 
thing existing. 

To  follow  the  course,  which  nature  has  pointed  out 
in  the  development  of  the  mind,  these  steps  in  the 
process  of  abstraction  should  be  kept  distinct,  by  ex- 
ercising tfie  learner  upon  them  in  the  order,  in  which 
they  rise  from  each  other.  For  this  reason,  it  is  im- 
r&rtant  that  the  child,  in  its  first  essays  to  reason 
upon  numbers,  should  always  have  some  external  ob- 
jects, to  which  he  may  attach  his  numbers,  present  to 
the  senses.  This  stage  in  the  science  of  numbers, 
a  science,  which  by  one  abstraction  and  generalisa- 
tion after  another  ends  in  Algebra  and  the  higher 


103 

branches  of  Mathematicks,  is  level  to  the  capacity 
of  a  child,  almost  as  soon  as  he  can  speak.  This 
approach  to  reasoning  upon  abstract  numbers,  al- 
though it  is  one  of  the  best  exercises,  which  can  be 
offered  to  a  young  mind,  has  never  been  made  a  part 
of  mental  discipline.  The  fault  has  been,  in  some 
degree,  supplied  by  chance  and  the  natural  propen- 
sity of  the  mind  to  proceed  philosophically  in  its 
acquirements.  In  a  more  correct  system  of  disci- 
pline for  very  young  learners,  this  desideratum  can- 
not fail  to  be  supplied.  Exercises  in  calculation  by 
means  of  sensible  objects,  have  a  most  salutary  in- 
fluence upon  the  mind  of  a  child.  They  confine 
the  attention,  and  quicken  the  perceptions,  at  an  age 
when  it  is  most  difficult  to  select  employments,  which 
do  not  involve  powers  of  the  mind  not  yet  developed. 
The  second  stage  in  the  process  of  abstraction,  or 
forming  a  conception  of  absent  objects,  to  which  to 
attach  numbers,  and  reasoning  upon  the  numbers,  in 
this  connexion,  is  the  one,  with  which  this  system 
introduces  all  the  combinations  in  arithmetick ;  "  care 
being  taken  to  select  such  examples,  as  will  show 
the  combination  in  the  most  simple  manner."  The 
attention  is  confined  during  the  reasoning,  by  attach- 
ing the  numbers  to  a  vivid  conception  of  absent  ob- 
jects, and  the  feeble  powers  of  the  youthful  mind, 
are  thus  enabled  to  go  through  a  process  of  reason- 
ing, which  could  not  otherwise  be  endured.*  The 

*  I  do  not  notice  the  Maps,  which  accompany  the  system  as 
taught,  both  by  Pestalozzi  and   Colbnrn,  because  I  think  them  of 


104 

application  of  this  combination  may  then  he  put  to 
the  pupil,  in  some  example  involving  large  numbers, 
with  a  more  rational  hope,  that  he  will  better  under- 
hand, both  what  he  wishes  to  do,  and  the  means  of 
doing  it. 

.  This  principle  of  introducing  new  combinations 
with  concrete  numbers,  has  never  before  been  car- 
ried into  arithmetick.  But  an  analogous  principle 
is  recognised  in  studying  Geography  by  maps,  and 
Astronomy  by  a  globe  or  orrery.  These  helps  only 
aid  the  mind,  in  forming  a  conception  of  the  relative 
magnitude  of  rivers,  mountains,  and  the  heavenly 
bodies,  from  description.  The  same  principle  is 
recognised  in  all  our  attempts  to  make  an  abstruse 
and  difficult  subject,  understood  by  others.  If  we 
wish  to  explain  any  transaction  between  several 
men;  we  immediately  suppose  you  to  be  one  of  the 
characters,  him,  another,  and  myself,  a  third ;  and 
thus  by  the  aid  of  these  sensible  objects,  we  can  ex- 
plain any  complicated  transaction  between  three  men. 

at  least  doubtful  utility.  When  the  pupil  has  reasoned  by  them 
;i  time,  and  learned  to  solve  ((motions  upon  them,  he  is  required 
all  at  once  to  suppose  them  to  vanish,  and  reason  upon  the  num- 
bers without  them.  But  the  association  will  have  become  so 
strong,  that  this  abstraction  will  cost  more  trouble  to  the  pupil,  than 
if  in  his  progress,  he  had  used  a  variety  of  objects  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  thus  learning  by  example,  that  the  objects,  by  which  li«^ 
reasons,  may  be  constantly  chantrine,  while  the  reasoning  rc- 
maiii*  |u«'<-'iM  !\  ?lir  >•  tine.  This  enables  him  to  form  the  abstrac- 
tion with  less  difficulty.  I  have  not  been  able  to  u-.-t  this  part 
of  the  system  by  experience,  and  therefore,  pronounce  upon  it 
with  more  hesitation. 


105 

If  a  jurist,  for  example,  wishes  to  explain  the  le- 
gal descent  of  property  through  different  branches  of 
a  family,  to  one  not  familiar  with  the  subject,  he 
does  not  state  the  principle  in  an  abstract  form,  using 
all  the  technical  terms  of  his  profession,  which  would 
be  precisely  analogous  to  the  common  method  of 
teaching  numbers  ;  but  he  immediately  presses  the 
whole  company  into  his  service.  He  supposes  this 
man,  a  son  ;  another,  a  brother  ;  a  third,  a  grandson, 
and  so  on,  till  he  has  represented  every  branch  of 
the  family  by  some  present  person  ;  and  then  in  con- 
nexion with  these  persons,  he  illustrates  his  principle 
clearly,  and  the  supposed  family  resume  their  former 
relations,  with  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  abstract 
principle  to  be  communicated. 

This  method  of  communicating  an  abstract  prin- 
ciple, is  just  as  applicable  to  elementary  arithmetick, 
as  any  other  subject ;  and  it  is  even  more  important 
in  this  application,  than  any  other.  No  processes  of 
reasoning  for  children  are  more  complicated,  than 
those  of  arithmetick.  There  are  none,  where  the 
young  mind  requires  more  helps,  to  enable  it  to  pur- 
sue ks  course,  without  distraction  or  interruption. 
Is  it  not  because  this  facility  in  communicating 
knowledge  has  not  been  applied  to  arithmetick,  that 
that  study  has  been  pronounced  intrinsically  difficult, 
and  far  beyond  the  capacity  of  young  learners  ? 
And  with  this  impression,  the  whole  subject  has  been 
wrapt  in  mystery  as  unintelligible,  as  the  hieroglyph- 
icks  of  the  Egyptian  Magi. 
14 


10G 

This  improvement  will  ultimately  give  to  arithme- 
tick  its  proper  rank  and  dignity,  among  elementary 
studies.  The  third  stage  or  abstraction,  properly  so 
called,  loses  sight  altogether  of  any  particular  ob- 
jects, and  the  mind  reasons  upon  the  numbers  alone. 
This  is  where  all  have,  heretofore,  taken  *jp  the 
subject.  And  the  evils  of  the  method  have  been 
long  and  severely  felt. 

The  third  characteristick,  which  I  proposed  to  ex- 
amine, it  will  be  recollected,  is  the  following  : 

All  those  rules,  which  are  merely  artificial,  and 
those  formed  for  particular  applications  of  the 
same  general  principle,  have  been  discarded.  Such 
rules  make  the  largest,  and  by  far  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  common  systems  of  arithmetick.  Any 
arrangement,  therefore,  by  which  they  disappear  in 
form  and  name,  will  seem,  to  superficial  observers, 
to  change  the  identity  of  the  subject.  But  such 
may  be  assured,  that  notwithstanding  the  great 
transformation  in  the  looks  of  arithmetick,  the 
whole  subject  remains. 

The  arrangement  of  the  system  by  analysis  and 
induction  is  according  to  principles,  and  not  accord- 
ing to  subjects,  as  in  other  books.* 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  general  principles,  and 
the  habit  of  analyzing,  which  this  system  is  so  ern- 

•  Mr.  Colburn  shall  state  his  own  arrangement.  "  In  tracing 
the  principles,  several  distinctions  have  been  made,  wh.ch  have 
not  generally  been  made.  They  arc  principally  in  division  of 
whole  numbers,  and  in  division  of  whole  numbers  by  fraction?, 


107 

inently  calculated  to  give,  will  better  prepare  the 
mind  for  the  examples  which  occur  in  life,  than  the 
multiplication  of  complicated  rules,  so  nearly  alike, 
that  much  discrimination  is  required  to  distinguish 
them.  The  rules  of  Barter,  Loss  and  Gain,  Fel- 
lowship, Equation  of  Payments,  and  Alligation  are 
not  recognised  by  name,  according  to  this  arrange^ 
ment.  But  the  principles  necessary  to  the  solution 

and  fractions  by  fractions.  There  are  some  instances  also  of 
combinations  being  classed  together,  which  others  have  kept  sep- 
arate. 

"  As  the  purpose  is  to  give  the  learner  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  variety  of  examples  under 
each  principle  as  great  as  possible.  The  usual  method  of  ar- 
rangement, according  to  subjects,  has  been  on  this  acount  entirely 
rejected,  and  the  arrangement  has  been  made  according  to  prin- 
ciples. Many  different  subjects  come  under  the  same  principle ; 
and  different  parts  of  the  same  subject  frequently  come  under 
different  principles.  When  the  principles  are  well  understood, 
very  few  subjects  will  require  a  particular  rule,  and  if  the  pupil 
is  properly  introduced  to  them,  he  will  understand  them  better 
without  a  rule  than  with  one.  Besides,  he  will  be  better  prepared 
for  the  cases  which  occur  in  business,  as  he  will  be  obliged  to  meet 
them  there  without  a  name.  The  different  subjects,  as  they  are 
generally  arranged,  often  embarrass  the  learner.  When  he 
meets  with  a  name  with  which  he  is  not  acquainted,  and  a  rule  at- 
tached to  it,  he  is  frequently  at  a  loss,  when  if  he  saw  the  example 
without  the  name,  he  would  not  hesitate  at  all. 

"  The  manner  of  performing  examples  will  appear  new  to 
many,  but  it  will  be  found  much  more  agreeable  to  the  practice 
of  men  of  business,  and  men  of  science  generally,  than  those 
commonly  found  in  books.  This  is  the  method  of  those  that  un- 
derstand the  subject.  The  others  were  invented  as  a  substitute 
for  understanding."  [Sequel,  preface,  pp.  vii.  and  viii.] 


108 

of  questions,  usually  put  under  these  rules,  are  fully 
illustrated.  The  learner  finds  himself  solving  all 
such  questions,  with  the  utmost  facility,  in  the  most 
philosophical  manner,  without  even  knowing,  that 
such  rules  exist  by  name.  I  subjoin  a  few  examples 
of  questions,  solved  by  the  complicated  and  artificial 
rules  of  the  most  popular  books,  and  then  add  the 
same  questions  solved  by  analysis.  Readers  shall 
then  judge,  which  method  is  most  expeditious  and 
philosophical.* 

*  I  select  examples  from  an  "  Arithmetick,  by  Daniel  Adams, 
INI.  B.?'  because  they  are  fair  specimens  of  the  common 
method,  and  because  this  book  has  been  more  generally  adopted 
in  New-England,  and  more  widely  circulated  over  the  whole 
continent,  flian  any  other.  Between  1802  and  1815,  "it  had 
been  through  nine  editions,  and  more  than  40,000  copies  of  it  had 
been  circulated."  At  that  time,  it  was  stereotyped,  and  I  fear 
my  knowledge  of  numeration  would  not  enable  me  to  state  the 
numbers,  with  which  the  publick  have  since  been  afflicted.  This 
book  owes  its  popularity  precisely  to  that  trait  in  its  character, 
which  ought,  in  the  onset,  to  have  condemned  it  to  oblivion.  It 
degrades  the  whole  science  of  arithmetick  to  a  mechanical  art. 
As  a  discipline  to  the  mind  of  the  learner,  therefore,  it  is  useless, 
and  worse  than  useless.  It  calls  into  exercise  no  power  of  the 
mind,  "but  memory,  and  requires  the  practice  of  no  virtues  but 
faith  and  patience  :  faith  to  believe  all  that  is  stated,  for  nothing 
is  analyzed  or  proved ;  and  patience  to  labour  so  long  in  the 
dark,  without  ever  understanding,  or  coming  to  the  light.  The 
principles  of  the  science,  the  development  of  which  constitutes 
the  chief  excellence  of  any  system,  cannot  be  disentangled  by 
the  learner,  from  the  useless  forms,  in  which  they  are  involved. 
The  pupil  never  thinks  of  any  thing  but  doing  his  "  sums,"  and 
getting  through  the  book.  It  is  difficult  to  dwell  with  any  com* 
placency  or  patience  on  the  fact,  that  so  many  of  these  books 


109 

A  man  bought  12  cords  of  wood  at  3  dollars  per 
cord,  and  paid  for  it  with  flour  at  6  dollars  per  barrel. 
How  many  barrels  of  flour  did  he  give  ? 

It  seems  necessary  to  beg  my  readers  not  to  spoil 
my  illustration,  by  solving  the  above  problem  at  once, 
before  they  have  been  taught  to  do  it  by  rule.  In 
the  first  place,  this  question  belongs  to  a  rule  called 
"  Barter,"  and  it  is  proper  they  should  commit  to 
memory  a  definition  of  Barter.  Here  it  is.  "  Bar- 
ter is  exchanging  one  commodity  for  another,  and 
teaches  merchants"  (I  suppose  no  one  else  has  a  right 
to  know  it)  "so  to  proportion  their  quantities  that 
neither  shall  sustain  loss."  ,& 

When  this  definition  is  well  committed,  my  read- 
ers are  permitted  to  learn  by  heart,  the  following 
RULES. 

"  1.  When  the  quantity  of  one  commodity  is 
given  with  its  value,  or  the  value  of  its  integer,  as 
also  the  value  of  the  integer  of  some  other  com- 
modity to  be  exchanged  for  it,  to  find  the  quantity 
of  this  commodity : — Find  the  value  of  the  com- 
modity of  which  the  quantity  is  given,  then  find  how 

have  been  so  long  suffered  to  waste  and  pervert  the  precious 
time  of  those,  who  have  but  little  time,  at  most,  to  bestow  upon 
the  subject.  The  public  are  intreated  to  look  into  the  claims  of 
this  book  to  such  overwhelming  patronage  ;  and  to  examine  it 
thoroughly,  both  in  regard  to  the  knowledge  it  gives  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  the  discipline  it  affords  the  mind.  For  nothing  but 
a  misapprehension  of  the  subject, — of  the  purposes  of  a  school 
book, — and  the  principles  of  the  human  mind,  will  excuse  the 
mischief,  it  is  allowed  to  do  the  community. 


no 

much  of  the  other  commodity,  at  the  rate  proposed, 
may  be  had  for  that  sum. 

"2.  If  the  quantities  of  both  commodities  be 
given,  and  it  should  be  required  to  find  how  much 
of  some  other  commodity,  or  how  much  money 
should  be  given  for  the  inequality  of  their  values  : 
— Find  the  separate  values  of  the  t\vo  given  com- 
modities, subtract  the  less  from  the  greater,  and  the 
remainder  will  be  the  balance,  or  value  of  the  other 
commodity. 

"  3.  If  one  commodity  is  rated  above  the  ready 
money  price,  to  find  the  bartering  price  of  the  oth- 
er : — Say,  as  the  ready  money  price  of  the  one,  is 
to  the  bartering  price,  so  is  that  of  the  other  to  its 
bartering  price." 

Now  under  which  of  the  above  cases  does  the 
question  come  ?  Here  I  leave  my  readers  in  the 
midst  of  the  difficulty  ; — and  without  wasting  time 
in  tracing  analogies,  solve  the  question  without  any 
reference  to  a  rule.  Twelve  cords  of  wood,  at 
three  dollars  per  cord,  will  cost  thirty-six  dollars,  and 
it  will  take  as  many  barrels  of  flour,  at  six  dollars 
per  barrel,  as  there  are  sixes  in  thirty-six.  There  is 
no  great  trouble  in  arriving  at  an  answer. 

I  shall  not  regret  obliging  my  readers  to  learn  so 
much  mathematicks,  at  such  an  expense  of  patience, 
if  I  convince  them  by  example  of  the  trouble  of  it  ; 
and  may  assure  them  at  the  same  time,  this  is  precise- 
ly what  thousands  and  thousands  of  learners  in  our 
schools,  are  doing  every  day.  An  example  involv- 


Ill 

ing  small  numbers,  only,  was  selected  to  make  the 
illustration  more  plain.  The  reasoning  would  be  the 
same,  however  large  the  numbers.  The  same  diffi- 
culties are  experienced  in  numerous  rules,  but  this 
single  example  will  suffice  to  expose  the  difficulties 
and  suggest  the  remedies. 

Could  I  enter  into  a  detailed  examination  of  the 
execution  of  the  inductive  system  of  Mr.  Colburn, 
much  would  be  found,  to  show  a  profound  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  as  well  as  of  the  powers  and  princi- 
ples of  mind,  to  which  it  is  adapted.  A  few  faults 
might  be  detected  by  a  vigilant  and  scrutinizing  eye. 
But  as  I  am  obliged,  by  the  circumstances  under 
which  I  write,  to  confine  myself  to  general  princi- 
ples, and  forbear  to  enlarge  upon  the  excellencies  in 
execution,  justice  requires  me  to  abstain  from  the 
faults. 


LETTER  VIII. 

THERE  is  one  result  from  the  arrangement  of 
arithmctick  by  general  principles,  so  important,  that 
it  demands  particular  consideration.  The  Rule  of 
Three  is  entirely  omitted.  Those,  who  first  learn- 
ed aiithmetick  mechanically,  and  have  never  thought 


112 

of  it  except  in  connexion  with  its  forms,  will  start 
at  so  bold  an  innovation ;  and  think,  of  course,  that 
a  rule,  which  has  been  dignified  with  the  name  of 
the  Golden  Rule,  and  which  takes  up  with  all  its 
modes,  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  their  books,  can- 
not be  omitted,  without  omitting  something  essential 
to  the  subject.  This  is  not  the  fact.  The  omission 
is  an  essential  improvement.  But  this  is  being  posi- 
tive without  proof.  Objections  will,  no  doubt,  be 
started.  So  far  as  they  can  be  anticipated,  they 
shall  be  met  under  the  two  heads  of  the  possibility, 
and  the  expediency  of  the  omission. 

First.  It  will  be  possible  to  dispense  with  the  rule, 
if  all  questions  which  are  now  solved  by  it,  can  be 
solved  by  other  rules,  or  by  general  principles.  This 
is  a  position  pretty  easily  sustained.  I  offer  four 
examples,  which  present  all  the  variety  that  can  oc- 
cur under  the  Golden  Rule. 

The  first  is  an  example  of  the  "Rule  of  Three 
Direct ;"  the  second,  of  the  "  Rule  of  Three  In- 
verse ;"  the  third  is  an  example  of  direct  proportion 
in  "  Double  Rule  of  Three  ;"  and  the  fourth,  of 
"  Inverse  Proportion,"  of  the  same  rule. 

1.  If  a  family  consume  %  of  a  barrel  of  flour  in 
3  weeks,  how  many  barrels  would  they  consume  in 
15  weeks  ? 

Analysis.  If  they  consume  -f-  of  a  barrel  in  3 
weeks,  they  will  consume  one  third  as  much,  or  T4T  ot 
a  barrel,  iu  one  week ;  and  if  they  consume  -£?  of  a 


113 

barrel  in  one  week,  they  will  consume  15  times  as 
much,  or  —»  equal  to  4  barrels,  in  15  weeks. 

2.  If  3  men  do  a   piece  of  work   in  7  days,  how 
long  will  it  take  5  men  to  do  the  same  work  ? 

Analysis.  If  3  men  do  the  work  in  7  days,  it  will 
take  one  man  three  times  as  long,  or  21  days  ;  and  if  it 
take  1  man  21  days,  5  men  will  do  the  same  work  in 
y  of  the  time,  or  y  of  a  day,  equal  to  4y  days. 

3.  If  the  interest  of  $50  for  2  months  is  $3,  what 
will  be  the  interest  of  $30  for  5  months  ? 

Analysis.  If  the  interest  of  any  sum  of  money 
for  2  months,  is  3  dollars,  the  interest  of  the  same 
sum  for  1  month  will  be  -l  as  much,  or  ^  of  a  dollar ; 
and  if  \  of  a  dollar  is  the  interest  of  $50,  the  in- 
terest of  1  dollar  will  be  T"-  as  much,  or  -^  of  a 
dollar ;  if  -j-f-j-  of  a  dollar  is  the  interest  of  1  dollar 
for  1  month,  the  interest  of  $30  will  be  thirty  times 
as  much,  or  -£~  of  a  dollar,  and  for  5  months  it  will 
be  5  times  as  much,  or  -*-££,  equal  to$4,50. 

4.  If  8  dollars'  worth  of  provision  serve  7  men  5 
days  ;  how  many  days  will  16  dollars'  worth  of  pro- 
vision last  4  men  ? 

Analysis.  If  any  quantity  of  provision  will  serve 
7  men  5  days,  it  will  serve  one  man  7  times  as  long, 
or  35  days ;  if  8  dollars'  worth  serve  one  man  35 
days,  one  dollar's  worth  will  serve  him  but  -g-  as  long, 
or  y  of  a  day,  16  dollars'  worth  will  serve  him  16 
times  as  long,  or  t-~— *- ,  equal  to ,  70  days  ;  and  the 
same  provision  can  serve  4  men  but  -^  as  long  or  ^ , 
equal  to  17y  days. 
15 


114 

These  examples  of  analysis,  which  are  spread 
out  to  their  full  length,  demonstrate  the  entire  prac- 
ticability of  solving,  upon  general  principles,  every 
question,  which  can  occur  under  the  rule  of  single 
or  compound  proportion.  Small  numbers  were  se- 
lected, only,  because  the  analyses  would  be  better 
understood  ;  the  reasoning  would  be  the  same,  how- 
er  large  the  numbers. 

Secondly.  It  will  not  be  expedient  to  omit  the 
form  of  the  rule  of  three,  unless  the  substitute  offer- 
ed is  more  expeditious,  more  philosophical,  and 
better  adapted  to  the  future  progress  of  the  learner, 
in  the  higher  branches  of  mathematicks.  1.  While 
the  numbers  involved  in  questions  of  the  rule  of  three 
are  small,  the  calculation  will  always  be  carried  on 
in  the  mind,  without  any  reference  to  the  form  the 
rule  prescribes.  If  the  numbers  are  large,  the  ques- 
tion must  be  examined  in  the  same  manner,  and  when 
it  is  sufficiently  understood,  to  know  what  operations 
are  necessary  to  discover  the  relation  of  the  numbers, 
the  learner  may  as  well  proceed,  forthwith,  to  the 
solution,  as  to  make  a  parade  of  proportion  ;  for 
every  step  in  the  solution  is  as  essential  after  the 
statement  as  before.  Placing  the  numbers  in  a  line 
with  a  certain  number  of  points  among  them,  is  alto- 
gether arbitrary.  It  would  be  just  as  well  to  place 
the  numbers  in  the  corners  of  the  slate  or  paper,  and 
then  multiply  the  numbers  in  diagonal  corners, 
and  divide  by  the  odd  number,  and  put  the  quotient, 
or  answer,  in  the  other  comer.  Indeed,  if  the  form 


115 

of  proportion  is  to  be  considered  useful  or  essential, 
this  arrangement  is  preferable  on  some  accounts.  It 
does  not  lead  the  pupil  to  suppose  the  truth  or  an- 
swer is  elicited,  somehow,  slyly,  by  virtue  of  those 
little  dots,  he  puts  among;  his  numbers. 

2.  The  method  of  solution  upon  general  principles, 
is  more  philosophical ;  because  in  the  operation,  the 
mind  is  intent  only  on  discovering  the  relation  of  the 
numbers ;  whereas,  in  the  formality  of  a  proportion 
at  length,  the  attention  is  divided  between  circum- 
stances and  forms,  which  are  of  no  importance  to  the 
solution,  and  those  principles  which  are  essential. 
That  method  cannot  be  called  philosophical,  which 
fixes  the  attention  on  a  form,  and  induces  neglect  of  the 
only  part  of  the  process,  which  is  important.  Besides, 
if  the  form  must  be  presented,  it  is  made  more  artificial 
and  unphilosophical,  in  all  the  popular  books,  than  is 
necessary.  A  common  method  is  ;  "  State  the  ques- 
tion by  making  that  number,  which  asks  the  ques- 
tion, the  third  term,  or  putting  it  in  the  third  place ; 
that  which  is  of  the  same  name  or  quality  as  the 
demand,  the  first  term  ;  and  that  which  is  of  the  same 
name  or  quality  with  the  answer  required,  the  second 
term."  This  rule  gives  explicit  directions  for  a  me- 
chanical operation  ;  for  all  the  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  rule,  the  pupil  gets  by  it,  he  might  as 
well  have  learned  hocus  pocus.  Take  an  example, 
and  state  it  by  the  rule. 


116 

"  If  91bs.  of  tobacco  cost  6s.    what   will    251bs. 
cost? 

OPERATIC*. 
Ibs.      t.  Ibs. 

As  9  :  6  :  :  25  to  the  answer. 
25 

30  Here  251bs.  is   made 

12  the  third  term  according 

to  the  rule,  by  being  put 

9)150(16s.  8d.  in  the  third  place,  for  no 

9  better  reason    than  be- 

cause it  asks  the  ques- 

60  tion,    (what  will  251bs. 

54  cost  ?)  ;    91bs.  being  of 

the  same    name   is   the 

6  first  i < •  mi  ;  the  6s.  must 

12  occupy    the    remaining 

place. 
9)72(8d. 
72 

00 

Now  "  multiply  the  second  and  third  terms  togeth- 
er and  divide  by  the  first."  \Vliy  ?  My  readers  can 
probably  tell ;  but  it  is  very  certain,  that  the  youth,  \\  ho 
is  just  entering  upon  the  subject,  can  assign  no  better 
reason  for  it,  than  because  the  rule  says  so.  He  has 
no  more  conception  of  what  this  step,  in  particular, 
has  to  do  with  obtaining  the  answer,  than  the  natives 
had  of  Columbus'  means  of  predicting  an  eclipse. 
And  he  ought  to  be  as  much  astonished  if  he  gets 
the  true  answer,  as  they  were,  when  the  event  hap- 


117 

pened  according  to  his  prediction.  If  this  is  philoso- 
phy, I  do  not  understand  what  that  term  means.  I 
should  call  it  catching  the  truth  by  legerdemain. 

To  assign  as  a  reason  for  such  statement,  that  the 
"  first  term  has  the  same  ratio  to  the  second,  as  the 
third  has  to  the  fourth,"  is,  if  possible,  more  unphilo- 
sophical.     It  is   not  only  ridiculous,  but  absurd.     A 
ratio,  that  is,  any  ratio,  which   relates  to  the  rule  of 
three,  is  the  number  of  times  one  quantity  is  contain- 
ed in  another  of  the  same  kind.     It  is  just  as  absurd 
to  talk  of  the  ratio  of  pounds  weight,  and  shillings,  as 
it  would  be  to  talk  of  buying  a  week  of  salt,  instead 
of  a  bushel ;  or  a  yard  of  wine   instead  of  a  gallon. 
A  ratio  subsists  between   the  figure*  which   express 
the  number  of  units  in  one  quantity,  whatever  be  the 
unit  of  measure,  and  the  figures,  which  express  the 
number  of  units  in  another  quantity,  however  differ- 
ent the  unit  of  measure.     That  is  to  say,  5  is  equal 
to  5,  and  is  half  1-0.     No  one  doubts  this  ;  but  when 
the  numbers    are   made  concrete,   by    attaching  to 
them    particular  denominations,    it    becomes  absurd 
to  say,  5  pecks  are  equal  to  5  days  ;  or  that  5  pounds 
are  half   of   10  yards.     This   absurdity,  which  dis- 
gusts the   learner,  if  he   is  sufficiently   inquisitive  to 
ask  for  reasons  for  what  he  is  doing,  is  avoided,  by 
a  solution  upon  general  principles. 

The  same  question  solved  by  analysis,  would  be 
reasoned  upon  thus.  If  91bs.  cost  6s.,  lib.  must  cost 
•5-  as  much,  or  -J  of  a  shilling  ;  and  if  lib.  cost  £  of  a 
shilling,  251bs.  will  cost  25  times  as  much,  or  -i*.*!^ 


118 

equal  to  *i*  of  a  shilling.  In  this  method,  although  es- 
sentially the  same  operations  are  performed  upon  the 
numbers,  the  pupil  understands  the  reason  of  every 
step,  and  can  tell,  precisely,  what  approach  he  makes 
by  it,  to  the  true  answer.  Whereas,  by  the  formali- 
ty of  a  proportion,  he  does  not  know  the  object  of 
any  particular  step.  He  only  knows  that  by  per- 
forming certain  mechanical  operations,  he  obtains  an 
answer  like  the  book.  The  proportion  is  a  sort  of 
crucible,  into  which  he  throws  his  numbers,  and  by 
a  process  altogether  as  unintelligible  to  him  as  shak- 
ing the  crucible,  he  gets  the  desired  result.  He  has 
no  means  of  knowing  whether  the  result  is  correct, 
but  by  comparing  it  with  the  book.  But  by  analy- 
sis, he  has  intuitive  knowledge  at  each  step,  and  is 
as  certain  of  his  conclusion,  as  he  is  that  two  and 
two  are  four. 

3.  But  one  objection  more  can  be  anticipated  to 
the  system  of  arithmetick,  which  discards  the  formal 
rule  of  three.  The  doctrine  of  proportions  has  been 
considered  very  important,  if  not  essential  to  the 
higher  branches  of  mathematics.  And  all  the  books 
upon  Geometry  and  Algebra,  and  all  which  treat  of 
their  application  to  the  physical  sciences,  are  filled 
with  them.  They  are  not  only  made  the  great  in- 
strument of  reasoning,  but  they  constitute  of  them- 
selves, in  all  their  modes  and  forms,  a  great  part  of 
all  systems  of  arithmetick,  geometry,  and  algebra. 
It  is  certain,  a  scholar  would  not  be  able  to  read  the 
books  on  the  higher  branches  of  the  pure  and  mixed 


119 

Mathematics,  without  a  knowledge  of  proportions,  at 
least,  sufficient  to*  translate  them  into  more  intelligi- 
ble language.  But  the  French  mathematicians,  who 
have  pursued  the  science  more  successfully  than 
any  others,  for  the  last  century,  have  long  since  pro- 
nounced iheformal  proportion  unnecessary.  Lacroix, 
who  understands  the  subject  of  mathematicks,  if  he 
does  not  the  best  method  of  teaching  it,  after  stating 
the  doctrine  of  proportions  in  all  their  modes  and 
forms  ;  says,  "  This  theory  was  invented  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discovering  certain  quantities  by  comparing 
them  with  others.  Latin  names  were  for  a  long  time 

o 

used  to  express  the  different  changes  or  transforma- 
tions, which  a  proportion  admits  of.  We  are  begin- 
ning to  relieve  the  memory  of  the  mathematical  stu- 
dent from  so  unnecessary  a  burden  ;  and  this  parade 
of  proportions  might  be  entirely  superseded  by  sub^ 
stituting  the  corresponding  equations,  which  would 
give  greater  uniformity  to  our  methods,  and  more 
precision  to  our  ideas."1 

Clearness  and  precision  in  our  ideas  are  important 
on  all  subjects  ;  on  the  subject  of  mathematics,  they 
are  essential.  On  moral  questions,  we  balance  prob- 
abilities, and  found  our  belief  on  a  preponderance  of 
evidence ;  but  in  mathematics,  we  have  demonstra- 
tion or  nothing.  If  one  step  in  the  process  of  dem- 
onstration comes  short  of  intuitive  knowledge,  the 
demonstration  is  destroyed.  Here,  then,  a  want  of 
clearness  and  precision,  is  a  want  of  knowledge.  And 
*  Lacroix's  Alg.  Canib.  Edit.  p.  234. 


120 

if  abolishing  the  parade  of  proportions  will  give  more 
precision,  it  is  certainly  desirable,  that  they  should 
be  struck  out  of  our  books.  The  object  is  so  impor- 
tant, and  the  effect  so  certain,  that  the  improvement 
must  ultimately  prevail.  The  only  reason  why  they 
have  been  retained  so  long  is,  that  no  one  wishes  the 
trouble  of  writing  over  again  all  the  books.  Propor- 
tions hold  their  place  in  the  mathematical  books,  pre- 
cisely by  the  same  tenure,  which  retains  radical 
signs  as  a  means  of  expressing  roots  in  algebra.  No 
one,  who  has  attended  to  the  subject,  will  doubt,  that 
fractional  exponents  are  a  much  more  convenient  and 
intelligible  method  of  expressing  the  same  thing. 
Still  the  change  in  the  books  would  be  so  very  con- 
siderable, that  no  one  has  yet  undertaken  to*  suppress 
radical  signs/  The  manner  of  representing  the  truth 
may  be  totally  indifferent  to  adepts  in  the  science, 
but  to  one  just  entering  upon  the  subject,  it  is  highly 
important.  He  has  enough  to  encounter  in  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  science,  without  being  embarrassed  by 
an  unintelligible  language.  And  when  more  just 
views  are  entertained  of  the  importance  of  adapting 
the  science  to  the  capacity  of  the  learner,  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  that  both  these  improvements  will  find  their 
way  into  the  mathematical  books.  The  temporary 
evil  of  changing  the  mode  of  expression  is,  surely,  no 
sufficient  reason  for  retaining  what  is  acknowledged 
an  obscure  and  troublesome  notion.  And  if  the 
change  is  ever  to  be  introduced,  it  must  be  begun  in 


121 

the  very  first  books,  which  are  put  into  the  hands  of 
children. 

I  am  now  done  for  the  present,  with  the  princi- 
ples of  instruction.  If  any  apology  is  due  for  the 
length,  to  which  the  discussion  has  been  protracted, 
that  apology  will  be  found  in  the  importance  of 
the  subject.  The  principles,  which  have  been  stat- 
ed and  illustrated,  have  a  most  important  bearing 
upon  existing  books  and  systems  of  education.  If 
they  are  correct  and  philosophical,  there  are  some 
great  and  radical  defects,  which  are  intimately  inter- 
woven with  our  best  plans  for  instruction,  and  which 
call  loudly  for  attention  and  reformation.  Although 
the  principles  have  been  acknowledged  by  high  au- 
thority ;  it  is  not  upon  that,  they  must  mainly  depend. 
Are  they  consonant  with  the  known  phenomena  and 
laws  of  mind ;  and  will  they  stand  the  test  of  the 
touchstone  of  experience  ?  If  so,  they  are  worthy 
to  be  adopted ;  if  not,  they  ought  to  be  rejected. 
If  we  estimate  authority  by  its  antiquity, — if  princi- 
ples are  to  be  received  with  meek  submission,  accord- 
ing as  they  have  held  a  sway  longer  and  wider  over 
the  opinions  of  men,  the  odds  are  fearfully  against 
us.  But  this  reverence  for  antiquity,  which  it  is  al- 
most profanity  to  question  or  violate,  although  it 
proves  a  salutary  check  upon  rash  innovation,  is  also 
a  troublesome  barrier  ajjainst  wholesome  improve- 
ment. How  else  is  it,  that  amidst  the  vast  improve- 
ments in  all  other  sciences,  the  science  of  instruc- 
tion remains  so  stationary,  upon  the  ground  it  occu- 
16 


122 

)>icd,  two  thousand  years  ago.  The  empire  of  mind 
lias  been  widely  extended,  both  over  itself,  and  over 
the  material  world.  But  the  progress  is  still  slow. 
Bacon  has  thrown  forward  nn  anchor,  with  which 
the  world  have  not  yet  come  up.  And  if  our  schol- 
ars and  philosophers  will  consent  to  seize  hold  and 
jnill,  they  will  produce  a  much  more  sensible  mo- 
tion, than  to  be  hoisting  their  sails  and  flourishing 
their  pennants  in  a  dead  calm. 

The  science  of  instruction  is  the  sphere,  and  our 
country  is  the  place  for  free  and  unembarrassed  exer- 
tion. Hope  certainly  gives  us  a  bright  and  animat- 
ing prospect  in  the  distance.  The  subject  of  educa- 
tion has  never  excited  so  deep  and  lively  an  interest, 
in  every  part  of  our  country,  as  at  present.  If  this 
interest  can  be  directed  by  the  wisdom  and  experi- 
ence of  the  more  enlightened,  it  cannot  fail  of  a 
great,  and  a  happy  effect.  The  importance  of  the 
subject  has  long  since  been  felt ;  the  time  has  come, 
when  attention  should  be  turned  to  the  nature  of  it. 
We  may  then  hope  for  those  improvements,  of  w  hich 
the  subject  is  susceptible  ;  and  those  splendid  results 
in  the  state  of  society,  which  the  more  ardent  and  phi- 
lanthropick  anticipate.  But  science  now  sits  solemn 
in  her  temple  afar  off.  The  ways  of  approach  are 
dark  and  devious.  A  few  votaries,  only,  by  chance 
or  untired  perseverance  gain  access,  till  at  the  ex- 
pense of  half  their  lives,  they  are  warned  by  expe- 
rience like  an  inspiration  from  above,  to  become  as 
little  children,  that  they  may  eiiter.  But  when  the 


,  123 

influence  of  education  is  more  duly  estimated ;  and 
when  the  cultivation  of  the  head  and  heart,  shall  be 
united,  and  form  one  distinct  and  dignified  profession, 
drawing  to  its  practice  the  greatest  and  best  of  men ; 
we  may  then  hope  a  proper  direction  will  be  given 
to  the  opening  minds,  and  expanding  hearts  of  the 
young  ;  and  that  all  the  deep  and  permanent  prepos- 
sessions of  childhood  and  youth,  will  be  upon  the 
side  of  truth  and  virtue.  Science,  philosophy,  and 
religion  will  then  be  blended  with  their  very  natures, 
to  grow  with  their  growth,  and  strengthen  with  their 
strength.  The  whole  earth  will  then  constitute  but 
one  beautiful  temple,  in  which  may  dwell  in  peace,  all 
mankind  ;  and  their  lives  form  but  one  consistent 
and  perpetual  worship. 


The  distance  of  the  author  from  the  press  has  prevented  our 
submitting  for  his  correction  all  the  preceding  letters,  as  they 
were  struck  off.  This  will  account  for  a  f«w  errors,  which  might 
not  otherwise  have  escaped.  PUBLISHERS. 


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41 


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